Emerging contaminants and climate change are major challenges that soil organisms are facing today. Triclosan (TCS), an antibacterial agent, is widespread and hazardous in terrestrial environments, but there is a lack of information on how its toxicity will change because of climate change. The aim of the study was to evaluate the short-term effects of increased temperature, decreased soil moisture content (drought), and their complex interaction on triclosan-induced biochemical changes in Eisenia fetida (as well as growth and survival). Four different treatments were used in TCS-contaminated soil tests with E. fetida (10-750 mg TCS kg-1): C (21 degrees C + 60 % water holding capacity (WHC)), D (21 degrees C and 30 % WHC), T (25 degrees C + 60 % WHC), and T + D (25 degrees C + 30 % WHC). The more prominent TCS effect on the survival was seen only after two weeks and at the high TCS concentrations, though a negative effect on weight growth was recorded after one week of exposure at all tested TCS concentrations and climate conditions. Under standard (C) conditions, an activated E. fetida antioxidative system effectively reduced the oxidative stress induced by TCS. Changes in the climatic conditions influenced E. fetid a's biochemical response to TCS-induced oxidative stress. Despite the enhanced activity of antioxidant enzymes, the combination of drought (D) and TCS caused significant lipid peroxidation in E. fetida. Under elevated temperature, E. fetida experienced oxidative stress and a considerable rise in lipid peroxidation due to insufficient activation or inhibition of antioxidant enzymes.

Thallium (Tl) is a highly toxic heavy metal. It is widely spread in soil. However, the effects of Tl on soil invertebrates have received limited attention. Eisenia fetida, a sensitive and widely used bioindicator, is important in assessing ecological risks in soil ecosystems. It is conceivable that the stress resistance of E. fetida may vary depending on its diet, potentially influencing the assessment of ecological risks associated with contaminants. This study aims to assess the toxicological effects of Tl in soil on E. fetida, focusing on mechanisms involving Tlinduced oxidative stress, disruption of antioxidant defenses, and diet-mediated differences in physiological tolerance. E. fetida was nourished with yogurt waste or cow dung as their primary food source before exposure. The research showed a significant correlation between the increase in soil Tl levels and its bioaccumulation in E. fetida. The highest Tl accumulation was observed in E. fetida fed with yogurt waste (5.55 mu g g-1), exceeding those fed with cow dung (4.77 mu g g-1). Tl inhibited the growth of E. fetida and induced oxidative stress responses. The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and peroxidase (POD) initially increased at lower concentrations and earlier time points but were suppressed at higher Tl concentrations and longer exposures. In contrast, glutathione S-transferase (GST) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities were generally elevated, especially in yogurt waste-fed worms. Additionally, reduced glutathione (GSH) levels declined over time, while malondialdehyde (MDA) levels increased significantly, indicating lipid peroxidation and oxidative damage. Furthermore, the Integrated Biomarker Response index indicated that cow dung-fed E. fetida exhibited a higher level of toxic stress when compared to those fed with yogurt waste. In a comparative analysis, despite accumulating more Tl, yogurt waste-fed E. fetida exhibited a lower overall toxic response than their cow dung-fed counterparts. Our results suggest that the diet, specifically yogurt waste, can enhance Tl tolerance in E. fetida. Hence, when assessing the ecological risk of Tl concerning earthworms, it is imperative to consider their dietary sources to increase the scientific validity of evaluation results.

Soil organisms are key to plant growth and ecosystem functions. Earthworms (EWs) enhance soil and indirectly affect plant growth, while their cutaneous excreta (CEx) contain bioactive compounds capable of eliciting plant responses. However, their role in plant immunity is still not well understood. We hypothesized that EWs and their CEx enhance plant defense against foliar pathogens by activating induced resistance. To test this, we evaluated the effect of Eisenia fetida and their CEx on Solanum lycopersicum (tomato), focusing on growth, physiology, and defense response against Botrytis cinerea. Plants were exposed to EWs, CEx, or water (control), followed by B. cinerea infection after two weeks. Gene expression of defense markers was assessed at 24 and 48 h post-inoculation (hpi), while physiological parameters and disease severity were evaluated at 72 hpi. EWs increased shoot biomass compared to CEx, while both treatments reduced root dry weight, suggesting a possible shift in resource allocation. CEx significantly reduced B. cinerea-induced leaf damage and showed a trend for flavonoid accumulation, a known marker of induced resistance. Both treatments, EWs and CEx, activated the jasmonic acid (JA) signaling pathway, with CEx specifically upregulating genes involved in fungal pathogen defense, sustaining their expression over time. The present study offers, for the first time, clear evidence that EW derived CEx can induce resistance by stimulating plant defense responses. Further biochemical, transcriptomic, and metabolomic analyses are needed to confirm indirect results, along with field validation. Nonetheless, the findings underscore the crucial role of soil biodiversity in enhancing crop resilience.

In recent years, microplastic (MPs) and pesticide pollution have become prominent issues in the field of soil pollution. This research endeavored to assess the impact of ultraviolet radiation (UV) on the characteristics of microplastics, as well as investigating the toxicological effect on earthworms (Eisenia fetida) when subjected to the dual stressors of microplastics and acetochlor (ACT). This research found that microplastics aged under UV were more prone to wear and tear in the environment, and produced more oxygen-containing functional groups. Chronic exposure experiments were conducted on ACT and aged-MPs. The results revealed that aged-MPs and ACT inhibited earthworm growth, induced oxidative stress, and caused damage to both the body cavity muscles and the intestinal lumen. Compared with individual exposure, combined exposure increased the oxidative products (superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT)) and altered the expression levels of related genes (TCTP and Hsp70) significantly. PE inflicted more significant harm to the earthworm intestinal tissue compared to PBAT. By 1H-NMR metabolomics, the investigation delved into the repercussions of PE and ACT on the metabolic pathways of earthworms. Exposure to ACT and PE can disrupt the stability of intestinal membranes stability, amino acid metabolism, neuronal function, oxidative stress and energy metabolism. Overall, the research revealed that combined exposure of MPs and ACT exacerbated the negative effects on earthworms significantly, and contributed valuable insights to environmental risk assessment of the combined toxicity of microplastics and pesticides.

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are ubiquitous emerging environmental contaminants. However, the comprehensive impact of EDCs on soil ecosystems, particularly on the model organism Eisenia fetida, remains inadequately understood due to disparate experimental and assessment methods. A meta-analysis was conducted to analyze the effects of EDCs on earthworm functional traits, including survival, behavior, growth, reproduction, and cellular responses. The analysis revealed that EDCs significantly impaired earthworm survival (-17.5%, p < 0.05), behavior (- 62.2%, p < 0.001), growth (-11.5%, p < 0.001), and reproduction (- 36.7%, p < 0.001). EDCs induced substantial oxidative stress, evidenced by a 36.5% (p <0.001) increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and elevated oxidative damage. The antioxidant defense system showed compensatory activation, with enhanced superoxide dismutase (10.0%) and catalase (8.90%) activities and glutathione levels (23.3%) (p < 0.001). The present study found chemical-specific toxicity patterns with heavy metals causing the most severe effects on behavior and reproduction. Toxicity profiles varied with exposure concentration and duration, revealing complex dose-response and temporal relationships. These findings provide crucial insights for the ecological risk assessment of EDCs and establish a foundation for developing targeted mitigation strategies. Furthermore, the findings highlight the importance of taking multiple endpoints into account when evaluating the toxicity of EDCs and suggest possible directions for future research.

Root-knot nematodes Meloidogyne spp. are sedentary endoparasites that infest a wide range of plant species; they are also widely distributed, making them one of the most economically significant pests. Similarly, damage caused by Aphelenchoides fragariae can lead to substantial reductions in both crop yield and quality. This research focused on the rhizosphere of Helianthus tuberosus L. (variety Albik), grown in a Polish plantation. The experiment was conducted at the National Institute of Horticultural Research in Skierniewice, using concrete rings filled with medium sandy soil amended with 10% peat. The treatments included the following: control (no amendments), silver solution (Ag+) (120 mg/L soil), and vermicompost (Ve) (20 L of Eisenia fetida vermicompost). Each treatment was replicated four times. Compared with control, (Ve) significantly decreased the numbers of Aphelenchoides fragariae and Meloidogyne hapla, by about 48% and 31%. The application of (Ag+) led to the most significant reduction in population density in both nematode species, with A. fragariae decreasing by over 67% and M. hapla by approximately 75%.

Ferroferric oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4 NPs) are widely utilized as nanoenabled agrochemicals and soil remediation agents, with functional modification significantly enhancing their stability and biocompatibility. However, excessive use of Fe3O4 NPs may pose unassessed ecological risks in soils, particularly concerning the regulatory role of two most common surface modifiers as polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and citric acid (CA) which influence the interactions of NPs with soil organisms and potential toxicity. This study evaluated the nanotoxic effects of bare Fe3O4 NPs (B-Fe3O4 NPs), CA-Fe3O4 NPs, and PVP-Fe3O4 NPs on Eisenia fetida in soil ecosystems. After 7 days of exposure, the B-, CA- and PVP-Fe3O4 NPs decreased the weight of the earthworms, caused oxidative stress and tissue damage. Functional Fe3O4 NPs showed increased accumulation in earthworms while alleviating oxidative stress and homeostatic imbalance by accelerating the activation of related enzymes. Moreover, hyperspectral and pathological observations indicated that CA and PVP modifications effectively alleviated tissue damage caused by Fe3O4 NPs via an improvement in NP biocompatibility, dispersion and stability evidenced by the levels of inositol metabolites, which has been upregulated more significantly by B-Fe3O4 NPs. Significant metabolic disturbances were observed, indicating that functional modifications forced earthworms to adjust amino acid metabolism and consume more energy to detoxify and repair damage. This work supplements the toxic assessment of Fe3O4 NPs and provides crucial insights for optimizing the safety of NPs through functionalization.

Fluxapyroxad, an emerging succinate dehydrogenase inhibitor fungicide, is widely used due to its excellent properties. Given its persistence in soil with a 50 % disappearance time of 183-1000 days, it is crucial to evaluate the long-term effects of low-dose fluxapyroxad on non-target soil organisms such as earthworms ( Eisenia fetida). The present study investigated the impacts of fluxapyroxad (0.01, 0.1, and 1 mg kg(-1 )) on Eisenia fetida over 56 days, focusing on oxidative stress, digestive and nervous system functions, and histopathological changes. We also explored the mechanisms of fluxapyroxad-enzyme interactions through molecular docking and dynamics simulations. Results demonstrated a significant dose-response relationship in the integrated biomarker response of 12 biochemical indices. Fluxapyroxad altered expression levels of functional genes and induced histopatho- logical damage in earthworm epidermis and intestines. Molecular simulations revealed that fluxapyroxad is directly bound to active sites of critical enzymes, potentially disrupting their structure and function. Even at low doses, long-term fluxapyroxad exposure significantly impacted earthworm physiology, with effects becoming more pronounced over time. Our findings provide crucial insights into the chronic toxicity of fluxapyroxad and emphasize the importance of long-term, low-dose studies in pesticide risk assessment in soil. This research offers valuable guidance for the responsible management and application of fungicides.

The efficacy of RemBind (R) 300 to immobilize per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in aqueous film forming foam (AFFF)-impacted soil (& sum;(28) PFAS 1280-8130 ng g(-1); n = 8) was assessed using leachability (ASLP) and bioaccumulation (Eisenia fetida) endpoints as the measure of efficacy. In unamended soil, & sum;(28) PFAS leachability ranged from 26.0 to 235 mu g l(-1), however, following the addition of 5% w/w RemBind (R) 300, & sum;(28) PFAS leachability was reduced by > 99%. Following exposure of E. fetida to unamended soil, & sum;(28) PFAS bioaccumulation ranged from 18,660-241,910 ng g(-1) DW with PFOS accumulating to the greatest extent (15,150-212,120 ng g(-1) DW). Biota soil accumulation factors (BSAF) were significantly (p < 0.05) higher for perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acids (PFSA; 13.2-50.9) compared to perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCA; 1.2-12.7) while for individual PFSA, mean BSAF increased for C-4 to C-6 compounds (PFBS: 42.6; PFPeS: 52.7; PFHxS: 62.4). In contrast, when E. fetida were exposed to soil amended with 5% w/w RemBind (R) 300, significantly lower PFAS bioaccumulation occurred (& sum;(28) PFAS: 339-3397 ng g(-1) DW) with PFOS accumulation 23-246 fold lower compared to unamended soil. These results highlight the potential of soil amendments for reducing PFAS mobility and bioavailability, offering an immobilization-based risk management approach for AFFF-impacted soil.

Antimony (Sb) poses a significant ecological threat. This study combines biochemical, pathological, transcriptome, and metabolome analyses to assess the short-term (14-day) toxic impact of two Sb levels (25 mg/kg and 125 mg/kg) on earthworms (Eisenia fetida). Higher Sb concentration caused severe intestinal damage, elevated metallothionein (MT) levels, and reduced antioxidant capacity. Metabolome analysis identifies 404 and 1698 significantly differential metabolites in the two groups. Metabolites such as S(-)-cathinone, N-phenyl-1naphthylamine, serotonin, 4-hydroxymandelonitrile, and 5-fluoropentylindole contributed to the metabolic responses to Sb stress. Transcriptome analysis shows increased chitin synthesis as a protective response, impacting amino sugar and nucleotide sugar metabolism for cell wall synthesis and damage repair. Integrated analysis indicated that 5 metabolite-gene pairs were found in two Sb levels and 11 enriched pathways were related to signal transduction, carbohydrate metabolism, immune system, amino acid metabolism, digestive system, and nervous system. Therefore, the integration of multiomics approaches enhanced our comprehension of the molecular mechanisms underlying the toxicity of Sb in E. fetida.