The morphology of sheep wool applied as organic fertilizer biodegraded in the soil was examined. The investigations were conducted in natural conditions for unwashed waste wool, which was rejected during sorting and then chopped into short segments and wool pellets. Different types of wool were mixed with soil and buried in experimental plots. The wool samples were periodically taken and analyzed for one year using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy-dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS). During examinations, the changes in the fibers' morphology were observed. It was stated that cut wool and pellet are mechanically damaged, which significantly accelerates wool biodegradation and quickly destroys the whole fiber structure. On the contrary, for undamaged fibers biodegradation occurs slowly, layer by layer, in a predictable sequence. This finding has practical implications for the use of wool as an organic fertilizer, suggesting that the method of preparation can influence its biodegradation rate. (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic). (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic). (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic). (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(SEM)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)X(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(EDS)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic). (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic). (sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic). (sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic). (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic).

Periphyton-based biofertilizer have a high potential for soil remediation, particularly for controlling soil salinization. This global environmental problem leads to low soil utilization and insufficient crop yields. Efficient and sustainable methods of managing saline soils are needed to reduce salinization and improve soil fertility and crop quality. Traditional methods such as physical mulching and chemical amendments, while improving soil conditions, exhibit limited effectiveness and may damage soil structure. This study aims to evaluate the feasibility of algae-based fertilizers in remediating saline-alkali soils and improving crop performance. The review delves into the and application prospects of algae-based fertilizers, highlighting their potential from both sustainable development and economic perspectives. It further advocates integrating other emerging technologies with the production and application of algae-based fertilizers to address the increasingly severe challenges posed by degraded soil resources and environmental instability. The review found that algal fertilizers are more environmentally friendly than traditional chemical fertilizers but are not inferior in function. This approach offers more efficient and sustainable solutions for managing saline-alkaline soils and effectively achieves sus-tainable agricultural production. Furthermore, it is necessary to conduct experimental research and monitoring evaluations of algal fertilizers to formulate scientific and rational fertilization plans to meet the increasingly serious challenges facing soil resources and unstable environments. The findings of this study will provide theoretical and technical support for using algae biofertilizers for soil remediation, improving crop quality and sequestering carbon.

This work aims to isolate and screen the fungicidal endophytic bacterial strains for biocontrol efficacy against Phytophthora palmivora, a soil-borne pathogenic fungus that kills durian trees worldwide. Among more than 100 isolates, 6 strains were screened as potential fungicidal strains with inhibitory efficiency of 67.4-79.8%. Based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing and phylogenetic analysis, these strains were identified as Bacillus amyloliquefaciens EB.CK9, Bacillus methylotrophicus EB.EH34, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens EB.EH18, Bacillus siamensis EB.KN10, Bacillus velezensis EB.KN15 and Paenibacillus polymyxa EB.KN35. In greenhouse tests, the two strains P. polymyxa EB.KN35 and B. velezensis EB.KN15 significantly reduced the damage to diseased roots by P. palmivora (33.3 and 35.6%, respectively), increased the rate of survival of durian trees (only 20.8 and 22.9% plant death, respectively), and showed a positive effect on promoting durian plant growth. Notably, the potential fungicidal effect of last two strains against P. palmivora was recorded for the first time in this work. HPLC analysis showed that these strains can secret several plant growth-promoting compounds, including gibberellic acid (GA3), indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), kinetin, and zeatin. Of these, GA3 and zeatin were produced with a significant amount by both strains. The volatiles bio-synthesized by these isolates were also identified using GC-MS analysis, and some major volatiles were found as fungicidal agents. This study suggested that P. polymyxa EB.KN35 and B. velezensis EB.KN15 may be potential biocontrol candidates for durian P. palmivora and bio-fertilizers for the sustainable production of durian crops.

Formulation of sustainable slow-release phosphate (SRP) fertilizers using low-cost carrier materials is a growing area of research. This fertilizer can prevent its nutrient loss caused by surface runoff or soil leaching. Here, we investigated the mechanochemical activation of halloysite-rich kaolin clay by planetary ball milling and produced an enhanced SRP fertilizing substrate. The milling process was carried out under dry (clay only and KH2PO4 solution added after milling) and wet conditions (slurry of clay and KH2PO4) over varying durations (e.g., 1-8 h). Changes in crystallinity and microstructure of materials induced by milling were characterized by X-ray diffraction and electron microscopy. The retention and release of phosphate from the water-extractable phase of the fertilizer were also analyzed. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy mapped the elemental distribution at the crystal scale. The milling method had a pronounced effect on the phosphate release behavior. Dry-ground materials (3-5 h) showed better retention and controlled release (similar to 40% phosphate released in the first wash followed by similar to 5% in two successive washes). However, wet-ground samples released more phosphate initially (similar to 50%), leaving less for later release. Compared to wet milling, dry milling caused greater crystal damage, particularly halloysite tube breaks, and increased the amorphousness of the material. These affected the containment of KH2PO4 salt into halloysite lumen and the release of phosphate ions in the water phase. This provides a choice of fertilizer formulations simply by adjusting milling conditions. To move forward, we need to study the scale-up of this potentially sustainable slow-release phosphate fertilizer and test it in soil and crops. This will benefit raw mineral resources and improve the nutrient efficiency.

Root-knot nematodes (RKN) cause extensive damage to grapevine cultivars. RKN-resistant grapevine rootstocks remain vulnerable to biotic and abiotic stresses. This study aimed to determine the influence of composted animal manures (CAMs) [chicken manure (CM), cow manure (CowM), and sheep manure (SM)] with or without plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) on the population of Meloidogyne incognita, free-living nematodes (FLNs) and predaceous nematodes (PNs) residing in the soils of vineyard cultivars (Flame, Superior and Prime). The nematodes were isolated from grapevine roots and rhizosphere soils, then the absolute frequency of occurrence (FO), relative FO, prominence value (PV), and population density (PD) were assessed. The impact of CAMs and PGPR on the growth parameters, fruit output, and quality of three grapevine varieties was subsequently evaluated. Eight treatments included a control without CAMs or PGPR amendments, the CAMs alone, or CAM treatments combined with PGPR. The results showed that FLNs and PNs were more abundant in Prime than Flame or Superior cultivars when poor sandy loam soils were supplied with CAMs. Among all tested manures, CM was the best treatment as a nematicide. This was evident from the decreased numbers of M. incognita and increased numbers of FLNs and PNs in grapevine fields. Compared to the soil-applied oxamyl (a systemic nematicide), which was efficiently suppressive on M. incognita for two months, CM significantly (P < 0.05) decreased PD of the phytonematodes for five months, improved soil structure and enhanced the soil biological activities. There were significant (P < 0.05) increases in the number of leaves/vines by 79.9, 78.8, and 73.1%; and total fruit weight/vine by 76.9, 75.0, and 73.0% in Flame, Superior, and Prime varieties, respectively, compared to untreated vines. Regardless of the cultivar, soils amended with CM + PGPR achieved the lowest number of M. incognita among all other treatments, followed by SM + PGPR and CowM + PGPR. It was concluded that CAMs amendment, mainly CM, along with PGPR in poor sandy soils of temperate areas, is considered a sustainable approach for reducing parasitic nematodes and improving agricultural management.

Nanotechnology is an emerging tool which has the potential to stimulate photosynthetic process in stress related environment. Unfortunately, the role of nanotechnology on photosynthetic performance explaining photosystem II functionality and specific energy fluxes in crop plants are rather scarce. Photosystem II contributes 90% of the energy requirement in plants, therefore its participation in a sub-optimal environment cannot be ruled out. The current study not only elucidates the role of Zinc-NP on light harvesting efficiency of photosystem II and specific energy fluxes but also explains their subsequent involvement in physiological tolerance against salt stress in saline soil. Oryza sativa L. rice var. Diamond and Triticum aestivum L.wheat var. Benazir seeds were sown in plastic pots and were allowed to grow in natural condition. Fifteen-day-old plants were exposed to ZnO-NP at 0.02 g/L with or without salt stress (0, 75, and 150 mM) NaCl concentration. Application of nanoparticles in saline environment showed 22 to 36% increase in rice and 9 to 25% in wheat growth. Biomass accumulations and relative water content (RWC) were also increased from 10 and 111% in a suboptimal condition. Moreover, nanoparticles reduced the oxidative damages in both rice and wheat plants indicating -20.2 to -58.3% and -28.7 to -20.2% reduction in the MDA and H2O2 production under moderate to severe salt stress. Maximum quantum yield (Fv/Fm) was less affected in severe and moderate salt stress indicating -7 and -5.4% decrease in stress condition. Foliar application of ZnO-NP improves the size and number of active reaction centre of photosynthetic machinery (Fv/Fo) and performance index (PIabs) in saline soil. It was concluded that Zn-NP not only sustained light harvesting potential in both cereal plants under salinized soil but also increases the biomass accumulation and reduces oxidative damage in a sub-optimal environment.

Eutrophication and ecosystem damage result from phosphate pollution. Competing ions make extracting trace phosphate under 2.0 mg/L from treated wastewater difficult. However, if the phosphate could be sustainably recovered or reused in agriculture, considerable savings in fertilizer could be made. On the other hand, agricultural waste, which is a menace, contains a significant amount of cellulose that finds interesting applications as a biodegradable material. This study synthesized a cellulose-based adsorbent with iron hydroxide nanoparticles from nano-fibrillated cellulose (CNF) from agricultural waste and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC). It selectively removed phosphate from secondary treated wastewater. Fe(OH)3@CNF/CMC (FCC) removed 3 mg/g phosphate. The hydrogel-like material quickly absorbed 40 g/g of water and slowly released it for a week when dry. Soil burial test indicates microorganisms biodegraded 80 % of the hydrogel in 3 months. After these findings, we delivered plant nutrients using the phosphate-rich exhausted FCC adsorbent. Results showed that phosphate-rich FCC improved seed germination and plant growth. Phosphate-loaded FCC adsorbent promoted better plant growth than single super-phosphate and control samples. This study creates a circular economy-based slowrelease fertilizer from agricultural waste and secondary-treated wastewater. This approach uses the 3 R rule-recycle, recover, and reuse-to benefit society ecologically and economically.

With an increase in global demand for food without unwanted environmental issues stresses a need for sustainable agriculture. Up till now, conventional agricultural methods focused on obtaining great crop yields from the use of chemical fertilizers but overlooked the hazardous concerns that are leading to soil depletion. These chemical fertilizers adversely affect soil structure, decrease fertility, damage soil flora, and lead to soil erosion. In this scenario, understanding the natural mechanisms of plant-microbe interactions in the rhizospheric environment can potentially lead a way towards eco-friendly agriculture, as the plant associating bacteria prompting phytostimulation can be the key players in unlocking sustainable alternative for conventional fertilizers. Plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) are a distinct class of soil microorganisms that promote plant growth and yields by enhancing nutrient delivery and shielding the plants against diseases. N fixing bacteria such as Rhizobium and Azotobacter, for instance, fix atmospheric nitrogen into a usable form for plants, Pseudomonas and Bacillus induce root and shoot elongation by synthesizing phytohormones. These bacteria also provide protection to plants by synthesizing antimicrobial substances and increasing the competitive nature of the rhizosphere. Bacteria like Azospirillum, Enterobacter, and Flavobacterium also stimulate plant growth by producing phytohormones under specific envirnmental conditions. Utilization of PGPB as bio-stimulants in agriculture is a promising method for sustainable agriculture dependence on chemical fertilizers and maintaining soil health. This approach would play an important role in sustaining a balanced ecosystem along with increasing agricultural productivity.

Drought stress is becoming a structural phenomenon in cropping systems challenged by climate change and soil fertility degradation. A balanced fertilization strategy based on nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium as well as on silicon supplementation was tested as an efficient practice to improve maize tolerance to short-term drought stress. Three fertilization strategies (control: treatment with zero NPK fertilizer application; NPK: granular NPK fertilizer, and NPK + Si: granular NPK fertilizer enriched with 5% silicon) were evaluated under three irrigation regimes simulating three probable water deficit levels in the Mediterranean climate (I1, well-watered conditions: 80% of soil field capacity; I2, medium drought stress: 60% of soil field capacity; and I3, severe drought stress: 30% of soil field capacity). Drought stress was applied at V10 growth stage of maize and maintained for 15 days, then plants were rewatered according to the optimal irrigation regime. Results showed that medium and severe drought stress down-regulated maize plant growth and yield, especially under nutrient deficient conditions (control). Plants amended with NPK and NPK + Si recorded higher chlorophyll a pigment content (+ 22 to + 64%), stomatal conductance (+ 6 to 24%), and leaf relative water content (+ 7 to 23%) than those of the control, depending on the drought stress level. Silicon supplementation attenuated the down-regulation effects of drought stress on maize photosynthesis and biomass accumulation by improving stomatal conductance and electron transfer efficiency between PSII and PSI. Silicon supply improved the performance index for energy conservation from photons absorbed by PSII to the reduction of intersystem electron acceptors (PIabs) and reduced the dissipation energy flux (DIo/RC), responsible for the protection of PSII from photo-damage under drought stress, which resulted in significant enhancement of maize photosynthesis recovery and grain yield (+ 59 to 69%). Findings from the present study demonstrate that granular NPK-fertilizer fortified with silicon could be an efficient strategy to increase maize photosynthesis performance, plant growth, and productivity under short-term drought stress conditions.

Addressing saline soil issues while ensuring agricultural productivity requires innovative technologies. This study investigated the impact of adding an innovative remediation preparation, specifically leguminous compost containing 50 g (LCT+CS-1), 100 g (LCT+CS-2), or 150 g of corn silk kg-1 (LCT+CS-3), to saline soil (ECe = 11.05 dS m-1) on soil characteristics and fenugreek plant performance during the 2022/2023 and 2023/2024 seasons. All organic supplementations significantly improved soil organic matter content, nutrient levels, and enzyme activities (urease, acid and alkaline phosphatase, and catalase) while reducing soil pH and Na+ content compared to the control. These results reflected decreased Na+ content, oxidative stress indicators (hydrogen peroxide and superoxide radicals), and oxidative damage (leaf electrolyte leakage and malondialdehyde levels) in fenugreek plants. On the other hand, leaf integrity (chlorophyll and carotenoid contents, membrane stability index, and relative water content) and nutrient contents improved. Furthermore, K+/Na+ ratio, osmoregulatory compounds (soluble sugars and proline), antioxidant levels (glutathione, ascorbate, phenols, and flavonoids), and antioxidant activity increased notably. Thus, notable increases in plant growth and yield traits and seed quality (trigonelline, nicotinic acid, total phenols, and flavonoids) were achieved. LCT+CS-2 was the most effective treatment for saline soil (ECe = 11.05 dS m-1), alleviating salinity effects and improving fenugreek growth, yield, and seed quality traits.