Determining and characterising locations vulnerable to flooding can help in reducing damage and the number of fatalities. During the monsoon season, East India's Subarnarekha River frequently floods to a significant degree. In current work, we suggest a unique hybrid strategy for preparing the entire catchment's Flood Susceptibility Mapping (FSM). The study area's FSM was conducted by considering 10 flood conditioning factors utilising the Best-Worst Method (BWM) and a multi-parametric Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) as per expert knowledge. Meanwhile, the proposed strategy incorporates a Decision Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory (DEMATEL) for examining causal linkages and dependencies between different elements affecting the flooding process. Several statistical matrices were used to compare the suggested strategy of BWM and AHP. Based on our findings, we concluded that the integration of DEMATEL with AHP and BWM (ID BWM, ID AHP) was more effective than alternative strategies. The findings show that out of 10 flood conditioning factors, slope, elevation, distance from the river, drainage density, Topographic wetness Index (TWI), Land Use Land Cover (LULC), Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), precipitation, soil texture, and curvature, factors that have the biggest effects on the local flooding phenomenon are elevation, slope, precipitation, and distance from the river. For validating the efficacy of the flood susceptibility map, Area under the Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve (AUC-ROC) was adopted and demonstrated, showing a pretty high accuracy of (0.92 or 92% and 0.94 or 94%) for ID AHP and ID BWM, respectively. Our research findings provide a highly affordable and useful answer to the flooding problems of basin Subarnarekha.

This study investigates aerosol characteristics using ground-based measurements at two distinct regions, MohalKullu (31.9 degrees N, 77.12 degrees E; 1154 m amsl) and Kosi-Katarmal (29.64 degrees N, 79.62 degrees E; 1225 m amsl), from July 2019 to June 2022. The average Black Carbon (BC) concentrations were 1.5 f 1.0 mu g m- 3 at Mohal and 1.1 f 1.4 mu g m-3 at Katarmal. BC showed strong seasonal variability, with maxima during post-monsoon (2.6 f 1.0 mu g m- 3) and pre-monsoon (1.8 f 0.5 mu g m-3) seasons. The diurnal variation displayed distinct morning and evening peaks in all the seasons. High pre-monsoon AOD500 (0.30 f 0.06 to 0.54 f 0.08) and low values of & Aring;ngstrom exponent (0.67 f 0.10 to 0.95 f 0.30) indicated dominance of large particles, whereas lower AOD500 (0.21 f 0.07 to 0.25 f 0.03) in post-monsoon and winter, along with larger & Aring;ngstrom exponent (1.05 f 0.74 to 1.13 f 0.11), indicated smaller particles. Satellite-derived (OMI and MAIAC) AOD500 showed weak to moderate correlation with ground-based measurements at Mohal (R = 0.4639 for MAIAC, R = 0.1402 for OMI) and Katarmal (R = 0.3976 for MAIAC, R = 0.2980 for OMI). Using optical properties of aerosols and clouds (OPAC) and Santa Barbara discrete ordinate radiative transfer (SBDART) models, the short-wave aerosol radiative forcing (SWARF) was found negative at the surface and top of the atmosphere but positive in the atmosphere, suggesting significant surface cooling and atmospheric warming leading to high heating rates, respectively. Annual mean atmospheric radiative forcing was 27.36 f 6.00 Wm- 2 at Mohal and 21.87 f 7.26 Wm- 2 at Katarmal. These findings may have consequences for planning air pollution strategies and understanding the effects of regional climate change.

Salinity stress significantly impacts agricultural productivity by damaging key plant mechanisms like photosynthesis, osmotic balance, and enzymatic activity. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, valued in Ayurveda for its anti-carcinogenic withanolides such as withaferin A, faces reduced yields due to soil salinity in India. Sustainable, eco-friendly methods are needed to mitigate salt stress and improve economic yield, as conventional approaches are environmentally unsustainable for long-term productivity. This study hypothesizes that plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) could effectively reduce salinity stress and enhance withaferin A production. The study evaluates the effects of nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Azotobacter chroococcum), phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (Bacillus amyloliquefaciens), potassium-solubilizing bacteria (Enterobacter esburiae), and a mycorrhizal consortium under saline (4.5 dS m-1) and non-saline conditions. The 4.5 dS m-1 sodium chloride salinity dose significantly (p < 0.05) reduced growth attributes and increased malondialdehyde (p < 0.001) (MDA) content, electrolytic leakage (p < 0.0001) (EL), and sodium-potassium ratio (p < 0.001) by 113.38%, 79.51%, and 114.85%, respectively, compared to control. Among all the biofertilizer treatments, AMF inoculation most effectively improved (p < 0.05) growth parameters and decreased MDA (p < 0.01), EL (p < 0.001), and sodium-potassium ratio (p < 0.0001) by 69.99%, 21.42%, and 66.96%, respectively. Under salinity stress, AMF inoculation maximally increased (p < 0.0001) withaferin A by 49.07%, while PGPB increased (p < 0.05) it upto 34.54%. The findings suggest that AMF and PGPB alleviate salinity stress by reducing lipid peroxidation and electrolyte leakage, regulating the sodium-potassium ratio, and enhancing withanolide production in W. somnifera. Thus, microbial inoculation offers a sustainable, eco-friendly approach to improving the growth and yield of secondary metabolites in W. somnifera in salt-affected regions.

The discharge of fertilizers and untreated sewage from the Indian subcontinent was attributed to damage the coastal ecosystem and threat to the fishery resources. Based on the recent data collected along the Indian coasts, the issues were reanalyzed to identify potential mechanisms responsible. Carbon, nitrogen and oxygen isotopes revealed that the fertilizers used in the agricultural soil contaminate groundwaters, then fluxed to the coastal ocean. Similarly, the impact of municipal sewage is restricted close to the coast rather than spreading to the international waters. This reanalysis suggests that the occurrence of coastal eutrophication, hypoxia or shift in the ecosystem was mainly caused by natural processes such as coastal upwelling, stratification and reversing of coastal currents than hitherto hypothesized as the discharge of fertilizers and municipal sewage.

Far from the plate boundaries, the seismogenic zones within the cratonic areas of Indian land mass had remained largely undetected. The moderate earthquakes in such areas have proved to be hugely damaging because of their infrequency and consequent lack of societal preparedness. As the subtle geological expressions of tectonism make identifying hazardous zones in cratonic areas difficult, it is important to develop locally appropriate geological criteria to isolate potential seismic source zones. Although seismically induced liquefaction preserved in the sedimentary sections is useful as an earthquake proxy, its scope remains underestimated in cratonic regions. Here we offer a field-based methodological approach to mapping liquefaction features from such an area, located south of the Bharathapuzha River in the southwestern part of the Indian craton. We used the field data to constrain the near-field earthquake potential. The earthquake-induced soil liquefaction, in the form of sand dikes and sills, was identified within an area of roughly 100 km2, and the available data suggest two episodes of liquefaction - the one between 2.0 ka and 2.5 ka, and a later event around 0.78 ka BP. The spatial distribution and the dimension of the soil liquefaction features, in an area known for the occasional spurt in minor earthquakes in recent times, are suggestive of a potential seismic source in the region that can generate earthquakes of moment magnitudes (Mw) ranging from 5.5 to 6.5. Thus the present observation is a vital input for constraining the region's seismic hazard and the methodology developed here can be used in other areas of unknown potential.

Improving the prediction of weather events is always an important research area and challenging task for meteorologists since it can minimize the damage, adverse impact on human life, properties, and the country's economy. The operational and research centers around the globe have been working to better understand the multiscale interactions involved in advancing severe weather, including Tropical Cyclones and thunderstorm predictions. The present review article focuses on research activities with a specific emphasis on Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) methods that led to improvements in severe weather prediction over India during the last three decades. This work also highlights the continuous efforts of the India Meteorological Department (IMD) in increasing the observational network and severe weather monitoring. The evolution of NWP models and associated advancements in genesis, movement, and precipitation forecasts of extreme events by these models are discussed.

The present study proposes a rapid visual screening methodology for multi-hazard vulnerability assessment (termed as MH-RVS) of reinforced concrete (RC) buildings in the Indian Himalayan region considering earthquakes, debris flow, debris flood, and soil subsidence. An extensive field survey of 1200 buildings was conducted in three hill towns situated in the Northwestern Indian Himalayan region to identify prevalent multi-hazard vulnerability attributes. The presented MH-RVS methodology is statistically developed based on the information obtained from the current field survey and existing post-hazard reconnaissance studies. The proposed methodology effectively addresses the concern of underpredicting the expected damage states of RC buildings situated in hilly regions subjected to multi-hazard scenarios when they are assessed using RVS methodologies of seismic vulnerability assessment. Further, a simplified MH-RVS form is developed to collect field data and conveniently segregate the RC buildings based on their expected damage state under multi-hazard scenarios involving earthquakes, debris flow, debris flood, and soil subsidence. Stakeholders and decision-makers can use the proposed MH-RVS methodology to assess the perceived vulnerability of RC buildings in the Indian Himalayan region and devise timely strategies for structural strengthening and risk mitigation.

Soil erosion is a major issue in the Indian Himalayan region, affecting both mountainous areas and the Terai. In the Terai, significant surface soil loss is driven by factors such as sandy soils, shallow soil depth, high rainfall, and the erosive force of young rivers. Human activities, including the conversion of forests and grasslands to croplands and settlements, along with poor agricultural practices, exacerbate the problem. This pilot-scale study aimed to quantify surface soil erosion and the loss of soil organic matter and nutrients in a watershed of the eastern Himalayan Terai region of India, utilizing the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) model on a Geographic Information System (GIS) platform. The results revealed substantial soil loss (x\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\overline{x }$$\end{document} = 32.0 Mg ha-1 yr-1), along with the removal of organic matter (x\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\overline{x }$$\end{document} = 0.95 Mg ha-1 yr-1), available nitrogen (x\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\overline{x }$$\end{document} = 1.49 kg ha-1 yr-1), available phosphorus (P2O5) (x\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\overline{x }$$\end{document} = 0.50 kg ha-1 yr-1), and available potassium (K2O) (x\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\overline{x }$$\end{document} = 5.02 kg ha-1 yr-1). Ground surveys indicated that a significant portion of the local population was directly or indirectly affected by the annual loss of fertile topsoil, with farmers, agricultural workers, and tea garden owners being the most impacted. The erosion problem of Terai region remains unheard of as it does not cause direct damage like landslides. However, loss of topsoil every year declines the land productivity and curbs the agricultural financial benefit margin. The study recommends expanding soil erosion monitoring and modelling across the entire eastern Himalayan Terai region. Being a cost and time friendly reliable method, use of RUSLE on the GIS platform can be the best option for that. With updated erosion data, comprehensive management measures can be developed involving policymakers, administrators, researchers, and local communities.

The present study investigated the evolution of the time-dependent behavior of remolded samples of Indian black cotton soil for different loading-unloading-reloading cycles in oedometer conditions. The microstructural analysis was carried out to evaluate the parameters such as particle rearrangement and pore size reduction that are responsible for creep at different time periods. It was observed that micropores existed in large numbers, and the number of pores decreased rapidly with an increase in pore size. The number of pores was found to decrease by 20-30% and 85-90% at the intermediate and final stages of the creep test, respectively. Additionally, it was noted that although small pores and mesopores were less in number, they were significant in pore area calculations. The reduction in pore areas for the intermediate and final stages was found to be in the range of 40-50% and 40-60%, respectively, as there were large proportions of micropores that compressed without influencing the overall pore area. The percentage of vertically aligned particles reduced from 21 to 15% at the end of the test. This observation is attributed to the particle rearrangement and reduction in pore sizes that occurred during the test.

The Black carbon (BC) and Brown carbon (BrC) concentration has been measured over Srinagar (Garhwal) in central Himalayas during October 2020 to September 2021 periods. The average BC mass was 2.59 +/- 1.96 mu g m- 3 and its absorption coefficients were abundant at shorter wavelength. BC seasonal variation exhibited a significant variability, with highest during winter (4.54 +/- 2.64 mu g m- 3) followed by pre-monsoon (2.69 +/- 2.04 mu g m- 3) and post-monsoon (1.93 +/- 0.91 mu g m- 3) while lowest was observed in the monsoon (1.05 +/- 0.54 mu g m- 3). Relatively high contribution of total spectral light absorption coefficient (Abs lambda) was observed (75.94 Mm-1) at 370 nm than longer wavelength (16.86 Mm-1) at 950 nm. The BrC contribution was higher at 370 nm (32.50 Mm-1) to the total babs (lambda), while at higher wavelengths it has extensively decreased (2.54 Mm-1 at 660 nm). Seasonally, the absorption coefficient of BC and BrC was greater in winter (83.99 and 68.37 Mm-1) while lowest in monsoon (19.38 and 9.27 Mm-1), respectively. The babs BrC/babs (t) ratio revealed higher contribution of BrC in winters. The secondary brown carbon (BrCsec) and primary brown carbon (BrCpri) contributed 43.16 % and 56.88 % towards the total BrC Abs (lambda) at 370 nm with higher in winter and lowest in monsoon, respectively. BrCsec and BrCprim has shown higher contribution in evening (18.00-20.00 h) and in morning (09.00-11.00 h) hours. The average radiative forcing (RF) of BC was 36.11 +/- 6.99 Wm-2, 2.19 +/- 1.22 Wm-2 and -33.92 +/- 5.96 Wm-2 at the atmosphere (ATM), Top of the Atmosphere (TOA), and at the Surface (SUR), respectively.