Tropical high-Andean wetlands, locally known as 'bofedales', are key ecosystems sustaining biodiversity, carbon sequestration, water provision and livestock farming. Bofedales' contribution to dry season baseflows and sustaining water quality is crucial for downstream water security. The sensitivity of bofedales to climatic and anthropogenic disturbances is therefore of growing concern for watershed management. This study aims to understand seasonal water storage and release characteristics of bofedales by combining remote sensing analysis and ground-based monitoring for the wet and dry seasons of late 2019 to early 2021, using the glacierised Vilcanota-Urubamba basin (Southern Peru) as a case study. A network of five ultrasound loggers was installed to obtain discharge and water table data from bofedal sites across two headwater catchments. The seasonal extent of bofedales was mapped by applying a supervised machine learning model using Random Forest on imagery from Sentinel-2 and NASADEM. We identified high seasonal variability in bofedal area with a total of 3.5% and 10.6% of each catchment area, respectively, at the end of the dry season (2020), which increased to 15.1% and 16.9%, respectively, at the end of the following wet season (2021). The hydrological observations and bofedal maps were combined into a hydrological conceptual model to estimate the storage and release characteristics of the bofedales, and their contribution to runoff at the catchment scale. Estimated lag times between 1 and 32 days indicate a prolonged bofedal flow contribution throughout the dry season (about 74% of total flow). Thus, our results suggest that bofedales provide substantial contribution to dry season baseflow, water flow regulation and storage. These findings highlight the importance of including bofedales in local water management strategies and adaptation interventions including nature-based solutions that seek to support long-term water security in seasonally dry and rapidly changing Andean catchments.

Food cellars, otherwise referred to as ice or meat cellars, (lednik in Russian, k'aetyran in Chukchi, si????uaq in Inupiaq, and siqlugaq in Yupik) are a natural form of refrigeration in permafrost or seasonally frozen ground used to preserve, age, and ferment foods harvested for subsistence, including marine mammals, birds, fish, and plants. Indigenous peoples throughout the Arctic have constructed cellars in frozen ground for millennia. This paper focuses on cellars in Russian and American coastal and island communities of the Bering Strait, the region otherwise known as Beringia. This area has a unique, culturally rich, and politically dynamic history. Many traditions associated with cellars are threatened in Chukchi communities in Russia because of the impacts of climate change, relocation, dietary changes, and industrial development. However, even with warmer temperatures, cellars still provide a means to age and ferment food stuffs following traditional methods. In cooperation with local stakeholders, we measured internal temperatures of 18 cellars in 13 communities throughout the Bering Strait region and northern Alaska. Though cellars are widely used in permafrost regions, their structure, usage, and maintenance methods differ and exhibit influences of local climates, traditions, and economic activities. Monitoring internal temperatures and recording structural descriptions of cellars is important in the face of climate change to better understand the variety and resilience of living adaptations in different cold regions.

Considerable climate changes have been observed in the last 50 years - warming in every spatial scale (global, continental, regional and local), changes in atmospheric precipitation and several weather extremes, shrinking of cryosphere and sea level rise. The warming since the mid-20th century has predominantly been due to greenhouse gas emissions from human activities, in particular the combustion of fossil fuels, farming and other changes in land use. The paper presents the aspects of impact of climate change for farming and food security and the impact of farming for climate change in Polish and global scale. Agriculture holds a meaningful potential of reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and of carbon sequestration. It will be necessary to manage optimally advantageous changes and effectively adapt to adverse changes.

The important factors for the agrarian output in Bulgaria are only thermal and water probability. From the two factors, the component related to soil moisture is more limited. As well water and temperature probabilities in the agrarian output are estimated through stuns of temperatures and rainfalls or by derivative indicators (most frequently named as coefficients or indices). The heat conditions and the heat resources are specified by the continuousness of the vegetative period. Duration of vegetative season is limited for each type of plant, between the spring and autumn steady pass of air temperature across the biological minimum. For the agricultural crops in Bulgaria, the three biological minimums in 5 degrees C are taken for wheat and barley, oat, pea, and lentil; in 10 degrees C for sunflower, corn, haricot, and soybean; and in 15 degrees C for the cotton, vegetables, and other spring cultures. The cold and warm period duration are mutually related characteristics. The first period defines the number of days with the snowfall and days with the snow cover that are the basis in the formation of soil moisture reserves after the spring snow melt. Definition of the regions with temperature stress conditions during vegetative season is one of the most important parameters of agroclimatic conditions. The values indicating for the limitations are one or more periods from at least 10 consecutive days with maximal air temperature over 35 degrees C. More from the agricultures, character for the moderate continental climatic zone are developed normally under temperatures 25-28 degrees C. Temperatures over 28 degrees C are ballast slowing the growth and destroying plants due to the heat tension. The component, limiting in greatest degree growth, development and formation of yields from the agricultural crops are the conditions of moisturizing, present trough atmospheric and soil moisture. The most apparent indicator is the year sum of the rains or their sum by the periods with the average daily temperatures of over 5 and 10 degrees C. Cross correlation matrix between the meteorological elements from which evapotranspiration depends - temperature, relative air humidity, wind speed, and the vapor pressure deficit - is present. The data about the limitations, emergent from the soil moisture lack, to the base of the existing agrometeorological data are present. Values of the relation between real and potential evapotranspiration were calculated for potential vegetative period which is divided up to the two subperiods, March to June, the period of formation outputs from wintering cultures, and July to August, the period of formation outputs from the spring cultures. In the 1980s and 1990s, science led debates for and against climate change. During this time they published dozens of monographs and among them are Sir John I loughton's Global Warming: The Complete Briefing and John T. Hardy's Climate Change: Causes, Effects, and Solutions. The first of them was translated into Bulgarian by the author of this paper and published in 1996 by the academic publishing house of Prof. M. Drinov. Of course, they published numerous other studies and hundreds of articles, reports, and messages (Olmstead, Rhode, Creating abundance: biological innovation and American Agricultural Development. Cambridge University Press, 2008; Croitoru et al, Glob Planet Change 102:10-19, 2013; Rosenzweig, Hillel, Climate change and the global harvest: potential impacts of the greenhouse effect on agriculture. Oxford University Press, 1998; Georgieva, Kazandjiev, Sci Pares Ser A Agron LVI:459-467, 2013; Georgieva et al, Europa XXI 29:43-58, 2015; Kazandjiev, Peev, Prerequisites for disaster by natural weather phenomena and processes, reports first scientific-practical conference on Emergency Management and Civil Protection, Sofia, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences 10.11.2005, pp 186-193 (in Bulgarian), 2005d; Kazandjiev, Agroclimatic resources and definition of less favored areas at the beginning of XXI century in Bulgaria, Conference Global Environmental Change - Challenges to Science and Society in Southwestern Europe. CD version, 2008a; Rattan et al, Climate change and global food security, CRC, 2005; Roumenina et al, Int J Remote Sens 34(8):2888-2904, 2013; Pritchard, Amthor, Crops and enviromnental changes. Haworth Press (US), 2005; Simeonov, Georgiev, Atmos Res 57:187-199, 2001; Sivakumar et al, Natural disasters and extreme events in agriculture. Springer, 367 pp, 2005; Slavov, Relationship between climate change and desertification. Problems of land degradation and combating desertification. UN str.42-48 (in Bulgarian), 1998; Slavov, Alexandrov Drought Netw News 5(2):12-15, 1993). Today science has a lot of evidence in favor of climate change. But now science nationally and globally faces new questions: How far will climate change reach? How will the various sectors of the economy adapt to change? How will agriculture in particular adapt to climate change? What must the action plan 2030-2050 contain? The purpose of this paper is to plot a strategy for the adaptation of agriculture in Bulgaria to climatic change. This will establish the vulnerability of the main types of crops to climate change and will define criteria for extreme meteorological phenomena and processes of agro-meteorological point of view. The team will assess the risk of dangerous agriculture phenomena and combinations thereof, through probabilistic and statistical research. Also we will present indices that can be used as indicators for proof of climate change. As a result, they will identify adaptation measures by regions and types of cultures and develop a strategy for adaptation of Bulgarian agriculture to changing environmental conditions.