BackgroundEnergy flows in most food chains in the agroecosystem are crowned with beneficial natural enemies including different species of predatory and parasitic insects, birds and animals. They are utilized in organic and IPM cotton production to replace the conventional insecticides usually applied in cotton production.ResultsNatural populations of six coccinellids, five staphylinids and two carabids (Coleoptera), three anthocorids and three reduviids (Heteroptera), five syrphids (Diptera, three labidurids (Dermaptera), two chrysopids (Neuroptera) and one thripid (Thysanoptera) species were manipulated in Egyptian clover to aggregate in seed production stripes (stripe technique) adjacent to and across the cotton fields during April-May, 2022. These 30 predatory species represent 112 energy flow routes in food chains preying on tetranychid mites, aphids, thrips, whiteflies and cotton leaf worm attacking cotton plants during vegetative growth stage beginning from April to May 2022. High populations of these predators develop along the clover season (November-May) on different pests where no insecticide applications occur. They aggregate in the flowering clover stripes left for seed production feeding on nectar, pollens and remaining pests. By dryness of the clover stripes, populations of all these predatory species abandon the clover, migrating outwards into the adjacent cotton or corn fields showing an excellent high protection against cotton pests suppressing their populations far away under the level of economic threshold damage during vegetative growth stage. Dressing cotton seeds with Bacillus amyloliquefaciens as antagonist protects the seedlings from soil-borne diseases. Insect pheromone traps detected the first appearance of the pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saund.) moths, the cotton bolls are attacked also by the spiny bollworm, Earias insulana (Boisd.). The egg parasitoid Trichogramma evanescens (West.) was released in 6 successive releases to guide the energy flow in favor of the parasitoid by getting it from egg contents of these two pests, which resulted in high protection of cotton bolls. This study aims better understanding of biodiversity and the routes of energy flow among the complex net of food chains governing the bio-dynamics in the Egyptian agroecosystem, which enabled the development of the present strategy to completely abandon application of the conventional insecticides and chemical fertilization for organic cotton production in Egypt.ConclusionThe study is an approach contributing to improvement of the agroecosystem and production of healthy crops.

Ecological theory predicts that herbivory should be weaker on islands than on mainland based on the assumption that islands have lower herbivore abundance and diversity. However, empirical tests of this prediction are rare, especially for insect herbivores, and those few tests often fail to address the mechanisms behind island-mainland divergence in herbivory. In particular, past studies have not addressed the relative contribution of top-down (i.e. predator-driven) and bottom-up (i.e. plant-driven) factors to these dynamics. To address this, we experimentally excluded insectivorous vertebrate predators (e.g. birds, bats) and measured leaf traits associated with herbivory in 52 populations of 12 oak (Quercus) species in three island-mainland sites: The Channel Islands of California vs. mainland California, Balearic Islands vs. mainland Spain, and the island Bornholm vs. mainland Sweden (N = 204 trees). In each site, at the end of the growing season, we measured leaf damage by insect herbivores on control vs. predator-excluded branches and measured leaf traits, namely: phenolic compounds, specific leaf area, and nitrogen and phosphorous content. In addition, we obtained climatic and soil data for island and mainland populations using global databases. Specifically, we tested for island-mainland differences in herbivory, and whether differences in vertebrate predator effects or leaf traits between islands and mainland contributed to explaining the observed herbivory patterns. Supporting predictions, herbivory was lower on islands than on mainland, but only in the case of Mediterranean sites (California and Spain). We found no evidence for vertebrate predator effects on herbivory on either islands or mainland in any study site. In addition, while insularity affected leaf traits in some of the study sites (Sweden-Bornholm and California), these effects were seemingly unrelated to differences in herbivory. Synthesis. Our results suggest that vertebrate predation and the studied leaf traits did not contribute to island-mainland variation patterns in herbivory, calling for more nuanced and comprehensive investigations of predator and plant trait effects, including measurements of other plant traits and assessments of predation by different groups of natural enemies. La teor & iacute;a ecol & oacute;gica predice que la herbivor & iacute;a ha de ser m & aacute;s d & eacute;bil en las islas que en el continente, ya que las islas tienen una menor abundancia y diversidad de herb & iacute;voros. Sin embargo, todav & iacute;a no contamos con suficiente evidencia emp & iacute;rica que apoye estas predicciones, especialmente en lo que se refiere a la herbivor & iacute;a por insectos, y los pocos estudios que existen a menudo no abordan los mecanismos que generan estos patrones de divergencia entre islas y continente en los niveles de herbivor & iacute;a. En particular, las investigaciones previas no han examinado la contribuci & oacute;n relativa de las fuerzas top-down (es decir, efectos mediados por los depredadores) y bottom-up (es decir, efectos mediados por los rasgos funcionales de las plantas) en estas din & aacute;micas. En este trabajo, excluimos experimentalmente a depredadores insect & iacute;voros vertebrados (p. ej., aves, murci & eacute;lagos) y medimos rasgos foliares asociados con la herbivor & iacute;a en 52 poblaciones de 12 especies de robles (Quercus) en tres sitios insulares y continentales: las Islas del Canal de California vs. California continental, las Islas Baleares vs. Espa & ntilde;a continental, y la isla de Bornholm vs. Suecia continental (N = 204 & aacute;rboles). En cada sitio, al final de la & eacute;poca de crecimiento, medimos el da & ntilde;o foliar causado por insectos herb & iacute;voros en ramas control vs. ramas con exclusi & oacute;n de depredadores, y medimos diferentes rasgos foliares, en particular, la concentraci & oacute;n de compuestos fen & oacute;licos, el & aacute;rea foliar espec & iacute;fica y el contenido de nitr & oacute;geno y f & oacute;sforo. Adem & aacute;s, obtuvimos datos clim & aacute;ticos y de suelo de las poblaciones insulares y continentales utilizando bases de datos globales. Espec & iacute;ficamente, evaluamos los efectos de la insularidad sobre la herbivor & iacute;a y si exist & iacute;an patrones contrastados de los efectos de depredaci & oacute;n y expresi & oacute;n de rasgos foliares entre islas y continentes que contribuyesen a explicar los patrones observados en la herbivor & iacute;a. De acuerdo con la teor & iacute;a ecol & oacute;gica, la herbivor & iacute;a fue menor en las islas en comparaci & oacute;n con el continente, pero solo en el caso de los sitios mediterr & aacute;neos (California y Espa & ntilde;a). No encontramos evidencia de efectos de los depredadores sobre la herbivor & iacute;a en ninguno de los sitios de estudio, ya sea en las islas o en el continente. Adem & aacute;s, aunque la insularidad afect & oacute; a la expresi & oacute;n de rasgos foliares en algunos de los sitios de estudio (Suecia-Bornholm y California), estos efectos no estuvieron aparentemente relacionados con las diferencias observadas en la herbivor & iacute;a. S & iacute;ntesis. Nuestros resultados sugieren que la depredaci & oacute;n por vertebrados y los rasgos foliares estudiados no contribuyeron a los patrones de variaci & oacute;n entre islas y continente observados en los niveles de herbivor & iacute;a, lo que plantea la necesidad de investigaciones m & aacute;s exhaustivas que incluyan la evaluaci & oacute;n de otros rasgos funcionales y evaluaciones de la depredaci & oacute;n por otros grupos de enemigos naturales de los herb & iacute;voros.

As primary producers, plants play a central role in mediating interactions across trophic levels. Although plants are the primary food source for herbivorous insects, they can protect themselves from herbivore damage. Many plants produce toxic compounds that directly reduce herbivore feeding, but plants also protect themselves indirectly by attracting natural enemies of the attacking herbivore through volatile signaling. These so-called tritrophic interactions have historically been documented aboveground in aerial plant parts but are also known to occur belowground in root systems. In addition to herbivores, plants directly interact with other organisms, which can influence the outcomes of tri-trophic interactions. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are symbiotic soil microbes that colonize the roots of plants and facilitate nutrient uptake. These microbes can alter plant chemistry and subsequent resistance to herbivores. Few studies, however, have shown how AMF affect tri-trophic interactions above- or belowground. This study examines how AMF colonization affects the emission of root volatiles when plants are under attack by western corn rootworm, a problematic pest of corn, and subsequent attraction of entomopathogenic nematodes, a natural enemy of western corn rootworm. Mycorrhizal fungi increased rootworm survival but decreased larval weight. Differences were detected across root volatile profiles, but there was not a clear link between volatile signaling and nematode behavior. Nematodes were more attracted to non-mycorrhizal plants without rootworms and AMF alone in soil, suggesting that AMF may interfere with cues that are used in combination with volatiles which nematodes use to locate prey.

Microorganisms associated with plant roots significantly impact the quality and quantity of plant defences. However, the bottom-up effects of soil microbes on the aboveground multitrophic interactions remain largely under studied. To address this gap, we investigated the chemicallymediated effects of nitrogen-fixing rhizobia on legume-herbivore-parasitoid multitrophic interactions. To address this, we initially examined the cascading effects of the rhizobia bean association on herbivore caterpillars, their parasitoids, and subsequently investigated how rhizobia influence on plant volatiles and extrafloral nectar. Our goal was to understand how these plantmediated effects can affect parasitoids. Lima bean plants (Phaseoulus lunatus) inoculated with rhizobia exhibited better growth, and the number of root nodules positively correlated with defensive cyanogenic compounds. Despite increase of these chemical defences, Spodoptera latifascia caterpillars preferred to feed and grew faster on rhizobia-inoculated plants. Moreover, the emission of plant volatiles after leaf damage showed distinct patterns between inoculation treatments, with inoculated plants producing more sesquiterpenes and benzyl nitrile than noninoculated plants. Despite these differences, Euplectrus platyhypenae parasitoid wasps were similarly attracted to rhizobia- or no rhizobia-treated plants. Yet, the oviposition and offspring development of E. platyhypenae was better on caterpillars fed with rhizobia-inoculated plants. We additionally show that rhizobia-inoculated common bean plants (Phaseolus vulgaris) produced more extrafloral nectar, with higher hydrocarbon concentration, than non-inoculated plants. Consequently, parasitoids performed better when fed with extrafloral nectar from rhizobiainoculated plants. While the overall effects of bean-rhizobia symbiosis on caterpillars were positive, rhizobia also indirectly benefited parasitoids through the caterpillar host, and directly through the improved production of high quality extrafloral nectar. This study underscores the importance of exploring diverse facets and chemical mechanisms that influence the dynamics between herbivores and predators. This knowledge is crucial for gaining a comprehensive understanding of the ecological implications of rhizobia symbiosis on these interactions.