Uganda with its fragile ecosystem, large-scale human activities, and increasing population pressure, all of which combined, make this region increasingly susceptible to climate variation. This study examined the long-term trends of annual, seasonal, and monthly distributions of rainfall and temperature from 2001 to 2021 together with crop -wise agricultural productivity. For the analysis, we obtained CHIRPS -V2.0 (Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station Data version 2.0) rainfall, Moderate Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Land Surface Temperature (LST), DMSP nighttime lights, ESA land cover attribution, and international crop production assessment records. Subsequently, several non -parametric statistical applications were applied to check the long-term spatio-temporal trends of climate parameters and their inter -relationship at higher significance using the Google Earth Engine platform. The investigation reveals an annual increase in LST, averaging 0.01 degree celsius/year along with decreasing rainfall (1.89 mm/year). However, regional climate trends are largely elevation -dependent, which are predominantly subjected to the northern part of the study area witnessing a slight decrease in LST and thereby increased rainfall. Moreover, the long-term spatial nexus estimation divulges a potent inverse association between rainfall and temperature in the north and northeastern regions of the study area. Concurrently, changing patterns also have led to a decline in crop production and deterioration in water availability, which is accompanied by various other abnormalities, including the scarcity of water resources and anthropogenic activities. Changing climate has had significant implications on crop production, largely on corn and soybean as long-term shifts influence it in average rainfall and temperature, yearly fluctuations, and disturbances during various growth stages.

Optimizing the functions and services provided by the mountain cryosphere will maximize its benefits and minimize the negative impacts experienced by the populations that live and work in the cryosphere-fed regions. The high sensitivity of the mountain cryosphere to climate change highlights the importance of evaluating cryospheric changes and any cascading effects if we are to achieve regional sustainable development goals (SDGs). The southern Altai Mountains (SAM), which are located in the arid to semi-arid region of central Asia, are vulnerable to ecological and environmental changes as well as to developing economic activities in northern Xinjiang, China. Furthermore, cryospheric melting in the SAM serves as a major water resource for northeastern Kazakhstan. Here, we systematically investigate historical cryospheric changes and possible trends in the SAM and also discover the opportunities and challenges on regional water resources management arising from these changes. The warming climate and increased solid precipitation have led to inconsistent trends in the mountain cryosphere. For example, mountain glaciers, seasonally frozen ground (SFG), and river ice have followed significant shrinkage trends as evidenced by the accelerated glacier melt, shallowed freezing depth of SFG, and thinned river ice with shorter durations, respectively. In contrast, snow accumulation has increased during the cold season, but the duration of snow cover has remained stable because of the earlier onset of spring melting. The consequently earlier melt has changed the timing of surface runoff and water availability. Greater interannual fluctuations in snow cover have led to more frequent transitions between snow cover hazards (snowstorm and snowmelt flooding) and snow droughts, which pose challenges to hydropower, agriculture, aquatic life, the tail-end lake environment, fisheries, and transboundary water resource management. Increasing the reservoir capacity to regulate interannual water availability and decrease the risk associated with hydrological hazards related to extreme snowmelt may be an important supplement to the regulation and supply of cryospheric functions in a warmer climate.