Vegetation-banked terraces (VBTs) with bare treads and vegetated risers occur in periglacial environments characterized by strong winds, shallow ground freezing and frequent freeze-thaw cycles. On lee slopes on Scottish mountains they follow the contour, but as exposure to dominant winds increases they dip windward. Comparative analyses of VBTs on mountains with non-frost-susceptible regolith cover and those on mountains with frost-susceptible soils reveal significant differences in dimensions, associated landforms and current activity. The former are generally smaller, lack over-ridden organic material and are associated with aeolian landforms and deposits. They are apparently static features where present activity is limited to needle-ice creep of debris across terrace treads and over risers. The latter are associated with active vegetation-covered solifluction terraces, have over-run organic material and are currently moving en masse downslope through frost creep and possibly gelifluction. We infer that VBTs on non-frost-susceptible regolith cover formed through the accumulation of debris at the upslope margins of wind stripes that formed due to wind erosion during the Little Ice Age. The latter probably represent Holocene vegetation-covered solifluction terraces from which vegetation has been stripped from treads by turf exfoliation (disruption by needle ice, deflation of fines and undermining of soil scarps).

Needle ice growth is one of the more widespread and easily visible, but less studied, climate related processes shaping soil evolution, surface dynamics and ecosystem changes in the alpine environments. Here, we show the results of the monitoring of needle ice development at four plots located at 2670 m a.s.l. close to the Stelvio Pass in the Italian Central Alps during 2016. Needle Ice formation and evolution with time was monitored through the photogrammetric technique of the Structure from Motion (SfM). Our monitoring data included also quantitative measurements of some selected physical and climatic parameters like air temperature, ground temperature and ground water content at depths of 2 and 5 cm. Our data demonstrate that needle ice can develop with a relatively low ground water content (13.2%), at a relatively high minimum ground temperature (-0.3 degrees C) and with a low cooling rate (< 1.8 degrees C h(-1)). Moreover, for the first time, we observed that needle ice can form below a thin snow cover (< 25 mm) that can enhance the sensible heat flow from the ground to the atmosphere and, therefore, promote the cooling of the near surface ground. Statistically, the minimum air temperature results in the leading factor for the needle ice growth. The total frost heave seems to be related to the abundance of fine material (although we couldn't demonstrate it statistically). The absence of statistically significant relationships between frost heave and frost creep could be probably due to the importance of the observed needle ice toppling and the possible sliding of the clasts during the melting phases.