Plants and insects have co-evolved over millions of years, resulting in complex and dynamic interactions that have shaped the biodiversity of our planet. Plant-insect relationships may exhibit features of mutualism, antagonism and commensalism. Plant-insect interactions have significant implications for agroecosystem functioning and services. Thus, understanding the complex relationships between plants and insects is critical for sustainable agriculture and ecosystem management. These interactions are also critical to the interplay between agroecosystems and their ecological implications for the sustainability of agriculture production. This review aimed to explore the chemical, molecular and ecological interactions between agriculture and insects for the benefit of agroecosystems. Literature synthesis and analysis based on a thorough compilation of several investigations were carried out on plant-insect interactions using relevant key terms and criteria. Curation of data was based on databases and resources such as Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, PubMed, PubChem, and Gene Ontology. The evolution of a range of adaptations by insects to exploit plant resources, as well as the diversity of chemical and molecular mechanisms in plants as defense strategies are also highlighted. Moreover, issues of pest management, natural enemies, soil health and nutrient recycling and pollination that are pertinent to these interactions are discussed. Improved plant-insect interactions can result from encouraging habitat restoration by creating or restoring habitats for beneficial insects, such as by planting native flowering plants or providing bees with places to nest. Interaction between plants and insects can also be improved by promoting conservation and bolstering conservation practices in agroecosystems.

Pesticide application is used in horticulture to reduce plant damage from organisms such as insects and mites. Systemic insecticides are highly ef fi cacious and readily taken up by plant tissues. However, pesticide -treated plants may impose risks to nontarget insects or other organisms within ecosystems. In this study, insecticide residues in nectar, leaves, and fl ower petals of the horticulturally signi fi cant herbaceous annual snapdragon, Antirrhinum majus (Lamiales: Plantaginaceae), were assessed at two locations over several weeks following foliar and drench treatment with fi ve systemic insecticides. Concentrations of the insecticides were determined by liquid chromatography - mass spectrometry. The independent effects Application Method , Application Rate , and Time were statistically signi fi cant among all active ingredients in the three matrices in both sites in California (CA) and New Jersey (NJ). The interaction effects were also generally statistically signi fi cant in the CA site but less consistently so in the NJ site, dependent on the active ingredient and matrix. Post hoc analyses found the highest residue concentrations in leaves and the lowest in nectar, a trend generally consistent over time regardless of active ingredient for both the CA and NJ sites. The results of this study are discussed in the context of conserving pollinators and other bene fi cial insects. It is recommended that similar studies should be implemented in different geographical regions and climates, along with multiyear studies for perennial ornamental plants.

Cadmium pollution affects the global ecosystem because cadmium can be transferred up the food chain. The bumblebee, Bombus terrestris, is an important insect pollinator. Their foraging activity on flowers exposes them to harmful heavy metals, which damages their health and leads to massive population declines. However, the effects of chronic exposure to heavy metals on the flight performance of bumblebees have not yet been characterized. Here, we studied variation in the flight capacity of bumblebees induced by chronic cadmium exposure at field -realistic concentrations using behavioral, physiological, and molecular approaches. Chronic cadmium exposure caused a significant reduction in the duration, distance, and mean velocity of bumblebee flight. Transcriptome analysis showed that the impairment of carbon metabolism and mitochondrial dysfunction in the flight muscle were the primary causes. Physiological, biochemical, and metabolomic analyses validated disruptions in energy metabolism, and impairments in mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes activities. Histological analysis revealed muscle fiber damage and mitochondrial loss. Exogenous decanoic acid or citric acid partially restored sustained flight ability of bumblebees by mitigating muscle fiber damage and increasing energy generation. These findings provide insights into how long-term cadmium stress affects the flight ability of insects and will aid human muscle or exercise -related disease research.