The loess hilly region is one of the most fragile areas in China. Many ecological restoration projects in this region are equivalent to simple afforestation and grass planting, with large investment and low benefits. Based on the concept of reference ecosystem, this study uses remote sensing data and vegetation community survey of Wanhuigou catchment, and applies methods such as redundancy analysis and GeoDetector to explore the characteristics of topography, soil, and vegetation of reference ecosystem, so as to provide restoration standards for damaged or degraded ecosystems in a small watershed. Thirteen typical and representative areas are selected to evaluate the degree of ecosystem damage and resilience, and divided into four categories according to the evaluation results and characteristics of ecosystems. Corresponding restoration measures such as protection and conservation, natural restoration, auxiliary regeneration, and ecological reconstruction are adopted for ecosystems under different scenarios with reference ecosystems as the target, and the effectiveness of implementation is assessed. The results show that the combination conditions of elevation and slope have a very important influence on the distribution of ecosystems. In the process of ecological restoration, it is necessary to deeply grasp the characteristics of soil and species diversity within the same community and among different communities, as well as their interrelationships. Adaptive restoration measures for ecosystems in different situations are conducive to the sustainability and effectiveness of ecosystem restoration. Given the complexity and diversity of habitat conditions and plant community types in Wanhuigou catchment, the results have certain universality, which can provide reference for the comprehensive management of other small watersheds in the loess hilly region, so as to achieve sustainable construction and restoration of ecosystems as well as harmonious development between humans and nature.

An environmental disaster caused by the rupture of a mining tailings dam has impacted a large area of the Rio Doce watershed in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, resulting in unprecedented damage at spatial and temporal scales. The Atlantic Forest is one of the world's most important biodiversity hotspots. A long history of land use conversion has resulted in a highly fragmented landscape. Despite numerous restoration initiatives, these efforts have often biased criteria and use limited species assemblages. We conducted a comprehensive synthesis of the plant community in riparian forests along the Rio Doce watershed. Our work detailed vegetation composition (tree and sapling strata) and examined its relationship with edaphic and landscape factors, aiming to inform restoration projects with scientifically robust knowledge. A total of 4906 individuals from the tree strata and 4565 individuals from the sapling strata were recorded, representing a total of 1192 species from 75 families. Only 0.8% of the tree species and 0.5% of the sapling species occurred in all sampled sectors, with over 84% of the species occurring in a single watershed sector for both strata. We observed a high species heterogeneity modulated by turnover (92.3% in the tree, and 92.7% in the sapling strata) among sites. Overall, our research revealed a gradient of soil fertility influencing species composition across different strata. Additionally, we discovered that preserved landscapes had a positive impact on species diversity within both strata. The species exclusivity in the sampled sites and the high turnover rate imply the need to consider multiple reference ecosystems when restoring the watershed to reduce the risk of biotic homogenization. Finally, the reference ecosystems defined here serve as a basis for the selection of locally particular species in the implementation of restoration projects that aim to improve biodiversity, ecosystem services, and water security.