Wood plays a vital role in the terrestrial carbon cycle, both sequestering and subsequently releasing carbon to the atmosphere via decomposition. Decomposition has largely been studied in fallen and standing deadwood; much less is known about decomposition occurring inside live trees due to hollowing by wood-feeding termites and microbial heart rot. Internal stem damage is difficult to measure, leaving many unresolved knowledge gaps. Little is known regarding the location and total amount of damage done by termites and microbes, as well as whether these decomposers act in concert or separately. Furthermore, tree species, wood density and stem size can influence fallen deadwood decomposition, but their role in living tree internal damage is largely unknown. We destructively harvested 63 trees, finding internal damage in 32. We intensively sampled the internal stem damage in these 32 to investigate the relative contributions of microbes and termites in a tropical savanna in Queensland, Australia. We tested if damage changed at different heights in the tree, quantified tree-level termite and microbial damage and examined if termite and microbial damage co-occurred. We also tested the influence of tree species, wood specific gravity and size on tree-level internal stem damage across four species. Termite and microbial damage were present in 45% and 33% of all trees, respectively. On average, termite damage reduced total tree biomass by 3.3% (maximum 28%, SD = 4.7%) and microbial damage by 1.8% (maximum 26%, SD = 5.3%). The amount of damage from both decomposers decreased with increasing heights up the tree. Termite and microbial damage co-occurrence was greater within trees than within individual cross samples, suggesting local competitive exclusion or niche partitioning by decomposers. Tree species was a better predictor of damage than either wood specific gravity or tree size. Half of the trees in our study had substantial internal stem damage, highlighting the considerable role that termites and microbes play in decomposing wood within living trees. Our findings unveil the previously concealed wood decomposition dynamics occurring inside trees, with implications for accurate carbon estimation across savanna ecosystems.Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Subterranean termites, Anacanthotermes ochraceus, are a widely distributed and mainly recognized in Saudi Arabia as agricultural pests and economically serious insects causing damage to wood structures. Because termites have a cryptic feeding habit and have developed resistance to several insecticides, the effectiveness of most synthetic insecticides against them has been diminished. This study was designed in laboratory using sawdust and sand bioassay to confirm six native entomopathogenic nematode (EPN) isolates' effectiveness including Steinernema feltiae NEM-29, S. feltiae AHN, Heterorhabditis indica NEM-19, H. indica NEM-18, H. bacteriophora NEM-26 and H. bacteriophora AHN22 against workers of A. ochraceus. Results revealed that termite worker mortality was higher in the sawdust bioassay than in sand bioassay. At both tested assay methods, S. feltiae had a significantly greater mortality rate, followed by H. indica and H. bacteriophora. The maximum mortalities (100% and 79.0%) was recorded for S. feltiae AHN at 1000 IJs/termite with lower LC50 values of 7.3 and 73.8 IJs/termites at 16 d-post exposure in sawdust and sand assay, respectively. All tested EPN strains reproduced successfully and emerged from dead A. ochraceus workers in 8-14 days with higher reproduction rate (22,193 IJs/termite) for S. feltiae AHN in sawdust bioassay. Conclusively, it has been discovered that native EPNs can control termites more successfully, presumably due to they have the ability to spread further infections via infected dead individuals and can directly interact with termite pests in the soil.

There are various compounds to increase the natural resistance of wood, but they can be harmful to humans, domestic animals and the environment. Natural products are therefore being researched to ensure the sustainability of the environment, human health and reduce the use of traditional products. The objective of this research was to evaluate the efficiency of andiroba (Carapa guianenses), copaiba (Copaifera spp.) and jatropha (Jatropha curcas) oils in the biological resistance of Pinus elliottii wood to arboreal termites (Nasutitermes corniger). The andiroba and copaiba oils came from communities in the municipality of Santar & eacute;m, Par & aacute;, and the jatropha oil from Fazenda Tamandu & aacute;, in the municipality of Santa Terezinha, Paraiba. They were used pure and enriched with sublimated iodine (1, 3, and 5% concentration). The effects of volatilization and leaching on the efficiency of the solutions against Nasutitermes corniger were evaluated. The lowest mass losses and damages were for wood impregnated with copaiba oil, both pure and enriched with iodine. The samples subjected to leaching showed the greatest damage (score = 9.33). Termite mortality was 100% at the end of the assay for all the treatments tested. Copaiba oil can be an environmentally friendly alternative to protect wood, especially wood in direct contact with humans and domestic animals and exposed to environments where Nasutitermes corniger is likely to attack, as it has the lowest mass losses (7.51-6.14%). However, it is not exposed to situations that could cause leaching.

Termites are significant pests in many regions of the world, where they attack cellulose-based material in buildings, trees, and crops. The most significant economic losses occur to timber in structures, and a great deal of effort and money is spent to prevent damage to homes and public buildings. Termites may attack wood anywhere in a building, from below soil to the highest point on the roof. Detection of termites is often challenging due to the cryptic nature of termites, the complexity of the structure, the location of damage or termites in the structure, and available techniques. Several methods have been employed to detect and monitor the presence of termites in buildings, from simple visual searches to technology-based or technology-assisted approaches that vary in their invasiveness and destructiveness. This review examines the various techniques used to detect drywood and subterranean termites, explains the underlying termite biology connected with each detection method, and considers the benefits and drawbacks of each technique discussed. This will hopefully help professional pest inspectors and property owners select suitable termite detection methods. This review also highlights the need for continued research to develop and evaluate detection strategies and tools that may be utilized before implementing any termite control measures.

The extraradical mycelium of mycorrhizal fungi is among the major carbon pools in soil that is hard to quantitatively assess in-situ. Established method of in-growth mesh bags in temperate ecosystems is difficult to apply in the tropics, where mesh bags are often damaged by termites. Here we introduce a modification of the ingrowth mesh bag technique, in which mesh bags are enforced by stainless steel mesh. Its performance was tested in the Dong Nai (Cat Tien) National Park in Vietnam across two monsoon tropical forests, dominated by tree species associated with either ectomycorrhizal (ECM) or arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. Armored ingrowth mesh bags remained intact, while about 60 % of non-armored mesh bags were damaged by termites after 180 days of exposure. The biomass of extraradical mycelium of ectomycorrhizal fungi estimated by PLFA analysis was similar in the armored and non-armored mesh bags and did not differ between studied forests. However, fungal community composition slightly differed between armored and non-armored mesh bags in the ECM-but not in the AM-dominated forest. Fungal mycelium gathered in the AM-dominated forest was depleted in N-15 compared to that collected in the ECM-dominated forest. Overall, our results argue for using armored mesh bags as a robust tool for harvesting the biomass of extraradical mycelium of mycorrhizal fungi in tropical ecosystems.

Termite mounds are keystone structures in African savannas, affecting multiple ecosystem processes. Despite the large size of termite mounds having the potential to modify conditions around them, patterns of mound-induced ecosystem effects have been assumed to be isotropic, with little attention given to how effects might vary around mounds. We measured soil nitrogen content, grass species composition, and mammalian grazing on and off termite mounds in the four cardinal directions, and across wet and dry seasons at three savanna sites varying in mean annual rainfall in South Africa's Kruger National Park. Evidence of directional effects (anisotropy) on ecosystem properties around termite mounds varied with site. Grass species composition differed between north- and south-facing slopes at the two drier sites where mounds were taller. However, differences in grazing extent and soil nitrogen content around mounds were only present at the intermediate rainfall site where mammalian herbivore biomass was highest, and mounds were of medium height. Our results suggest that termite mound effects display significant variation with direction, but that the emergence of directional effects is context dependent. Our results further suggest that such context-dependent directional effects can lead to positive feedback loops between termites, abiotic conditions, and mammalian herbivores.

Subterranean termites (Family Rhinotermitidae) and drywood termites (Family Kalotermitidae) can be pest species as they have the potential to inflict damage to wooden constructions and can therefore cause a significant economic impact. Some species of these families are highly destructive and are invasive in many parts of the world. New introductions and/or the spread of termites are often caused by import of infested wood, plants or soils. The present study reports the first records of three exotic termite species in Belgium, viz. Cryptotermes brevis and Reticulitermes banyulensis in Brussels (Brussels Capital Region), and Reticulitermes flavipes in Brugelette (Hainaut province; Walloon region). The morphological identification of the specimens (N = 8) was validated by DNA-barcoding. Cryptotermes brevis and Reticulitermes banyulensis infestations are probably of little concern as local climatological conditions make it unlikely for either species to survive in the temperate climate in Belgium. In contrast, it is likely that Reticulitermes flavipes may become established and will spread to other sites in Belgium.

Environmental changes affecting museums and historic properties will probably result in increased numbers of insect pests or new species. Databases such as WhatsEatingYourCollection (WEYC) and the Global Biodiversity Information Facility have been used along with academic publications to predict such changes in the research presented here. The species mix in the WEYC database seems consistent across major London historic properties. Overall, common silverfish (Lepisma saccharinum) are often reported, although in future there may be an increase in other species such as Ctenolepisma longicaudatum and Ctenolepisma calvum given their increased frequency. Dermestidae (carpet and furniture beetles) may benefit from wood with increasing moisture content, and although not especially abundant, Attagenus smirnovi (brown carpet beetle) and Reesa vespulae (skin beetle) may increase as they have done on the European continent. Tineola bisselliella, a damaging moth, has invoked increasing concern over the last two decades and Cryptophagus spp. (fungus beetles) could mobilise fungal spores under a future climate more favourable to germination. Lyctus brunneus (powderpost beetle) may find future conditions favourable and attack sapwoods used in repairs. Furthermore, Reticulitermes flavipes (subterranean termite) is potentially an accidental import to the UK and may become more common given current temperatures are suitable for survival in well-drained loamy soils, and future climates would allow a presence in the north of England. Warmer conditions can lead to the presence of new species or a migration of species across the British Isles and their spread can also be encouraged through the loan of objects or on packing materials. Factors other than climate, such as changing indoor habitats, new food sources and novel uses of heritage venues can also encourage expanding insect populations. This article summarises these predicted changes in species distribution and outlines their potential threat to heritage.

The resistance of subfossil heartwood of European oak (Quercus robur L.) was examined in experiments conducted in accordance with the ASTM D 3345-08: 2009standard. The subfossil heartwood came from Do & lstrok;hobrody (5100 +/-50 BC) and Pu & lstrok;tusk (13th-14th century). Subfossil heartwood of Q. robur is more susceptible to deterioration by subterranean termites than the recent heartwood of this species. The average weight losses of subfossil heartwood of oak were 0.306 g (Do & lstrok;hobrody) and 0.475 g (Pu & lstrok;tusk). The average degree of damage to the subfossil heartwood was at the level of moderate attack, penetration. The differences in the degree of damage and weight losses of wood blocks for subfossil heartwood from Do & lstrok;hobrody and Pu & lstrok;tusk were statistically insignificant. Termite mortality was slight grade (Pu & lstrok;tusk) or slight/moderate grade (Do & lstrok;hobrody).