The rail network invariably encounters soft subgrades consisting of shallow estuarine clayey deposits. Cyclic loading generated by the passage of trains causes deformation and corresponding development of excess pore water pressure (EPWP), which dissipates during the rest periods between two consecutive trains. This paper presents an experimental study describing the effect of yield stress and EPWP responses upon intermittent cyclic loading (i.e. with rest periods), and the associated consolidation with the combination of vertical and radial drainage by way of a prefabricated vertical drain (PVD). Based on the laboratory data, the normalised yield stress for cyclic loading (NYCL) is introduced as an insightful parameter to define a novel empirical relationship between the yield stress, cyclic stress amplitude and the initial effective stress. The experimental results indicate that, as the NYCL increases, the peak EPWP decreases and, during the rest periods, the EPWP reaches a stable equilibrium faster without causing further settlement. Furthermore, this study demonstrates that the accumulated EPWP caused by cyclic loading can be further reduced when using a larger width of PVD for a given unit cell radius. An analytical model inspired by empirical parameters for predicting EPWP is proposed, capturing the effects of NYCL and the PVD characteristics.

In this paper, finite element (FE) modeling is conducted for a high-speed railway embankment on soft soils in Sebou, Morocco. Discrepancies arise between predicted and measured behaviors when using standard creep models. To address this, an advanced anisotropic creep constitutive model, known as Creep-SCLAY1S, is applied for comparison, focusing on the prefabricated vertical drain (PVD) treated soft soils. This advanced model incorporates fabric anisotropy, soil structure, and time-dependent behavior. The time-dependent soft soil creep model (SSCM) is also employed for further comparison. Numerical predictions are then compared with field instrumentation data. Results indicate that Creep-SCLAY1S offers improved predictions of in situ measurements, particularly post-construction, and provides a more accurate peak excess pore pressure during the embankment's rapid surcharge phase.

When stone columns or vertical drains are applied to improve soils, it is common to face situations where the soft soil layer is too thick to be penetrated completely. Although consolidation theories for soils with partially penetrated vertical drains or stone columns are comprehensive, consolidation theories for impenetrable composite foundations containing both two types of drainage bodies have been few reported in the existing literature. Equations governing the consolidation of the reinforced zone and unreinforced zone are established, respectively. Analytical solutions for consolidation of such composite foundations are obtained under permeable top with impermeable bottom (PTIB) and permeable top with permeable bottom (PTPB), respectively. The correctness of proposed solutions is verified by comparing them with existing solutions and finite element analyses. Then, extensive calculations are performed to analyze the consolidation behaviors at different penetration rates, including the total average consolidation degree defined by strain or stress and the distribution of the average excess pore water pressure (EPWP) along the depth. The results show that the total average consolidation rate increases as the penetration rate increases; for some composite foundations with a low penetration rate, the consolidation of the unreinforced zone cannot be ignored. Finally, according to the geological parameters provided by an actual project, the obtained solution is used to calculate the settlement, and the results obtained by the proposed solution are in reasonable agreement with the measured data.

Soft clays are prevalent in coastal areas of Australia, exhibiting low bearing capacity and considerable settlement upon loading, and must be improved as subgrades to meet the increasing demand for railway transportation soft soils beneath railway embankments are often subjected to train-induced cyclic loads generating higher excess pore water pressure (EPWP), reduced bearing capacity, and deformations under poor drainage conditions. These often lead to reduced efficiency in transportation and maintenance costs. Thus, it is important to investigate the behaviour of soft soils subjected to heavy cyclic loading and preventative actions. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the role of Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVDs) in mitigating failures associated with railway subgrades under cyclic loading.

The demand for increased axle loads and speeds of trains can diminish the stability of track substructure, leading to potential particle migration or slurry pumping under critical drainage conditions. This paper primarily focuses on the role of geosynthetics in mitigating the risk of soil fluidization potential under cyclic load. Laboratory experiments were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of geosynthetics including geotextiles, geocomposites, and prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs). The laboratory study indicates that subgrade instability primarily occurs due to the migration of fines towards the subgrade surface and the substantial increase in moisture content (MC). Dynamic Filtration Tests (DFTs) reveal that geocomposite inclusion in rail tracks can reduce the fluidization potential of soft soils and the combined prefabricated vertical drains-geocomposite system can be used to mitigate the critical excess pore water pressure (EPWP) that accumulates in shallow or deeper soil layer due to activated radial drainage paths.

Nowadays, the utilization of prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) or prefabricated horizontal drains (PHDs) in combination with vacuum preloading (VP) has emerged as a prevalent and effective strategy for treating dredged slurry. Nevertheless, both of these methods possess certain inherent limitations. In this study, three groups of parallel model experiments are conducted to compare the effectiveness of PVDs, PHDs and PHDs-PVDs under step VP in treating dredged slurry. Firstly, the water discharge, settlement and pore water pressure are monitored during the experiments. Then, the shear strength and water content of the soil at various locations after experiments are measured and the soil profiles at different cross sections are gauged. Additionally, soil excavation is conducted to evaluate the deformation characteristics of PHDs and PVDs. Finally, a scanning electron microscopy analysis is to assess the clogging of filter membranes. The results indicate that the proposed method can combine the advantages of both PHDs and PVDs, effectively enhancing the treatment effectiveness of the slurry. These findings elucidate the dewatering and reinforcement mechanism of PHDs-PVDs-VP and provide valuable insights for its practical engineering application.

The large strain and nonlinear consolidation characteristics of soft soils with high compressibility have obvious effects on their consolidation, but few analytical solutions for large-strain nonlinear consolidation of soils with vertical drains have been reported in the literature. By considering the large deformation characteristics of soft soils with high compressibility during consolidation, a large-strain nonlinear consolidation model of soils with vertical drains is developed and an analytical solution for this consolidation model is obtained based on Gibson's large deformation consolidation theory, in which a double logarithmic nonlinear compressibility and permeability model is adopted to describe the variation of the compressibility and permeability of soft soils. The proposed analytical solutions are compared with the numerical solutions of large-strain nonlinear consolidation of soils with vertical drains and the analytical solutions of small-strain linear consolidation under specific conditions to verify its reliability. On this basis, the nonlinear consolidation properties of soils with vertical drains under different conditions are analyzed by extensive calculations. The results show that the consolidation rate increases with decreasing the permeability parameter alpha, when the compression index I-c, keeps constant. The consolidation rate increases with decreasing the compression index I-c, when the permeability parameter alpha remains constant. The consolidation rate of soils with vertical drains increases with an increase in external load, and decrease with an increase in the ratio of influential zone radius to vertical drain radius when the compressibility and permeability parameters remain constant. Finally, the proposed analytical solution is applied to the reclaimed foundation treatment project of Shenzhen Western Corridor boundary control point(BCP). The settlement curve calculated by proposed solutions is in good agreement with the measured curve, which further illustrates the engineering applicability of the proposed analytical solution.

The prediction of time-dependent deformations of embankments constructed on soft soils is essential for preloading or surcharge design. The predictions can be obtained by Bayesian back analysis methods progressively based on measurements so that practical decisions can be made after each monitoring round. However, the effect of creep is typically ignored in previous settlement predictions based on Bayesian back analysis to avoid the heavy computational costs. This study aims to fill this gap by combining the Bayesian back analysis with a decoupled consolidation constitutive model, which accounts for creep to perform long-term settlement predictions of the trial embankment with prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) constructed in Ballina, Australia. The effect of creep on settlement predictions is illustrated by the comparisons of the cases with and without considering creep. The results show that good settlement predictions could be obtained if creep is ignored and could be further improved if creep is incorporated when the monitoring settlement data is applied in the Bayesian back analysis. Ignoring creep could lead to an underestimation of the ultimate consolidation settlement. The swelling index kappa and the compression index lambda need to be adjusted to larger values to match the measurements if creep is ignored. Four updating schemes (using surface settlement data only, using settlement data at all monitoring depths, using pore water pressure data only, and using both settlement and pore water pressure data) are applied to study the effects of monitoring data on the accuracy of settlement prediction. The results show that the variability introduced by the noisy pore water pressure data result in fluctuating settlement predictions. Incorporating both settlement and pore water pressure observations into the Bayesian updating process reduces the variability in the updated soil parameters.

Increasing demand for transportation has forced new infrastructure to be built on weak subgrade soils such as estuarine or marine clays. The application of heavy and high-frequency cyclic loads due to vehicular movement during the operational (post-construction) stage of tracks can cause (i) cyclic undrained failure, (ii) mud pumping or subgrade fluidisation, and (iii) differential and excessive settlement. This keynote paper presents the use of prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) to enhance the performance of tracks. A series of laboratory experiments were carried out to investigate the cyclic response of remoulded soil specimens collected from a railway site near Wollongong, NSW, Australia. The results of the laboratory tests showed that beyond the critical cyclic stress ratio (CSRc), there is an internal redistribution of moisture within the specimen which causes the top portion of the specimen to soften and fluidise. The role that geosynthetics play in controlling and preventing mud pumping was analysed by assessing the development of excess pore water pressure (EPWP), the change in particle size distribution, and the water content of subgrade soil. The experimental data showed that PVDs can prevent the EPWP from building up to critical levels. PVDs provide shorter-radial drainage for EPWP to dissipate during cyclic loading, resulting in less accumulation of EPWP. Moreover, PVDs cause soil to behave in a partially drained rather than an undrained condition, while geotextiles can provide adequate surficial drainage and effective confinement at the ballast/subgrade interface. Partially drained cyclic models were developed by adopting the modified Cam clay theory to predict the behaviour of soil under cyclic loadings. The Sandgate Rail Grade Separation project case study presents a design of short PVDs to minimise the settlement and associated lateral displacement due to heavy-haul train loadings.

The use of prefabricated vertical drains (PVD) in liquefiable deposits is gaining attention due to enhanced drainage. However, investigations on PVD in mitigating re-liquefaction during repeated shaking events are not available. This study performed a series of shaking table experiments on untreated and PVD-treated specimens prepared with 40% and 60% relative density. Repeated sinusoidal loading was applied with an incremental peak acceleration of 0.1g, 0.2g, 0.3g, and 0.4g, at 5 Hz shaking frequency with 40 s duration. The performance of treated ground was evaluated based on the generation and dissipation of excess pore water pressure (EPWP), induced sand densification, subsidence, and cyclic stress ratio. In addition, the strain accumulated in fresh and exhumed PVD was investigated using geotextile tensile testing apparatus aided with digital image correlation. No evidence of pore pressure was reported up to 0.2g peak acceleration for 40% and 60% relative density specimens. The continuous occurrence of soil densification and drainage medium restrained and delayed the generation of EPWP and expedited the dissipation process. This study demonstrates PVD can mitigate re-liquefaction, without suffering from deterioration, when subjected to medium to high intense repeated shaking events.