Due to the great influences of both climate warming and human activities, permafrost on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau (QXP) has been undergoing considerable degradation. Continuous degradation of plateau permafrost dramatically modifies the regional water cycle and hydrological processes, affecting the hydrogeological conditions, and ground hydrothermal status in cold regions. Permafrost thawing impacts the ecological environment, engineering facilities, and carbon storage functions, releasing some major greenhouse gases and exacerbating climate change. Despite the utilization of advanced research methodologies to investigate the changing hydrological processes and the corresponding influencing factors in permafrost regions, there still exist knowledge gaps in multivariate data, quantitative analysis of permafrost degradation's impact on various water bodies, and systematic hydrological modeling on the QXP. This review summarizes the main research methods in permafrost hydrology and elaborates on the impacts of permafrost degradation on regional precipitation distribution patterns, changes in surface runoff, expansion of thermokarst lakes/ponds, and groundwater dynamics on the QXP. Then, we discuss the current inadequacies and future research priorities, including multiple methods, observation data, and spatial and temporal scales, to provide a reference for a comprehensive analysis of the hydrological and environmental effects of permafrost degradation on the QXP under a warming climate.

Climate change has resulted in significant changes to subsurface hydrological processes in permafrost regions. Lateral subsurface flow (LSF) represents the dominant flow path in hillslope runoff generation. However, the contributions of runoff components to LSF, such as precipitation, soil water, and ground ice, remain unclear. This study aimed to characterize LSF generation processes in an alpine permafrost hillslope of Northeastern Tibetan Plateau, using stable isotopes and total dissolved solids (TDS) as tracers. Samples of precipitation and soil water [including mobile soil water and supra-permafrost groundwater (SPG)], LSF, and ground ice samples were collected from different thaw depths of the active layer in 2021. The results showed that LSF came directly from SPG in the active layer. Two-source partitioning using delta H-2 or TDS suggested that the dominant source of LSF gradually shifted from ground ice during the initial thaw period to precipitation with increasing thaw depths. The contributions of ground ice to LSF were 70 % and 30 % at thaw depths of 0-30 cm and >30 cm, respectively. The results of three-source partitioning indicated ground ice, precipitation, and SPG to be the dominant sources of LSF at thaw depths of 0-30 cm, 30-150 cm, and >150 cm, respectively. SPG largely regulates hillslope hydrologic processes at thaw depths >= 250 cm. Therefore, with continuing climate warming, SPG will play an increasing role in hydrological processes of alpine meadow permafrost hillslopes.

The source region of the Yellow River (SRYR) in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau is critical for supplying water resources to downstream areas. However, streamflow in the SRYR declined despite a slight increase in precip-itation during the past few decades. The SRYR experienced significant frozen ground degradation with climate warming, but how frozen ground degradation influences runoff remains unclear. This study investigated the changes of the precipitation-runoff relationship using the double-mass curve method and examined the impact of long-term spatiotemporal changes in frozen ground on the water balance components using the geomorphology -based eco-hydrological model (GBEHM). The results showed that the precipitation-runoff relationship changed significantly since 1989 in the SRYR from 1960 to 2019. In the same period, the areal mean value of the maximum thickness of seasonally frozen ground (MTSFG) decreased by 0.10 m/10a and the areal mean active layer thickness (ALT) of permafrost increased by 0.06 m/10a. Besides, 21.0 % of the entire SRYR has degraded from permafrost to seasonally frozen ground (SFG). Runoff decreased mainly in the region with elevation below 4200 m, where the evapotranspiration increase exceeded the precipitation increase. Frozen ground degradation significantly altered the hydrological processes, which is reflected by the increased subsurface runoff and the decreased surface runoff. The total water storage increased by 2.9 mm/a in the permafrost region due to the increase in active layer thickness and by 5.7 mm/a in the degradation region where permafrost completely thawed during 1960-2019. The runoff seasonality was also altered, being indicated as an increase in winter runoff. These findings help provide a better understanding of the runoff change under climate warming in permafrost-affected regions and provide insights into future water resources management in the Yellow River basin under the climate warming.

Cold season air warming was more rapid than warm season air warming on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP). However, the effect of this asymmetrical seasonal air warming on permafrost hydrological changes has not been fully understood. This study applied a distributed cryospheric hydrological model to evaluate the effects of different seasonal air warming on the changes in frozen soil and hydrological processes in a typical catchment, the source region of the Lancang River on the eastern QTP. The results show that the area of permafrost reduced by 14.0%. The maximum frozen depth of seasonally frozen ground (MFDSFG) decreased at 5.0 cm decade(-1), and the active layer thickness (ALT) of permafrost increased by 3.3 cm decade(-1). Controlled experiments illustrate that cold season air warming dominated the reduction in MFDSFG which caused the liquid soil moisture increase in seasonally frozen ground, and warm season air warming primarily determined the increase in ALT which enhanced the liquid soil moisture in permafrost. Cold season air warming had a greater effect on runoff than warm season air warming because it dominated the permafrost degradation into seasonally frozen ground. In the region where permafrost degraded into seasonally frozen ground, both the cold and warm season air warming contributed to the soil liquid water increase, and the cold season warming had a greater effect due to its more important role in thermal degradation of permafrost. The findings of this study reveal different complex impacts of cold and warm season air warming on permafrost hydrological changes on the QTP.

The representation of snow is a crucial aspect of land-surface modelling, as it has a strong influence on energy and water balances. Snow schemes with multiple layers have been shown to better describe the snowpack evolution and bring improvements to soil freezing and some hydrological processes. In this paper, the wider hydrological impact of the multi-layer snow scheme, implemented in the ECLand model, was analyzed globally on hundreds of catchments. ERA5-forced reanalysis simulations of ECLand were coupled to CaMa-Flood, as the hydrodynamic model to produce river discharge. Different sensitivity experiments were conducted to evaluate the impact of the ECLand snow and soil freezing scheme changes on the terrestrial hydrological processes, with particular focus on permafrost. It was found that the default multi-layer snow scheme can generally improve the river discharge simulation, with the exception of permafrost catchments, where snowmelt-driven floods are largely underestimated, due to the lack of surface runoff. It was also found that appropriate changes in the snow vertical discretization, destructive metamorphism, snow-soil thermal conductivity and soil freeze temperature could lead to large river discharge improvements in permafrost by adjusting the evolution of soil temperature, infiltration and the partitioning between surface and subsurface runoff.

The hydrological properties of the active soil layer are the key parameters that regulate soil water-heat-solute migration and alter hydrologic cycles in a permafrost region. To date, much remains unknown about the interaction mechanism between permafrost degradation and eco-hydrological processes in the permafrost regions of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP). In this study, the soil texture, soil hydrological properties, the soil moisture status, and the hydrothermal processes were measured and analyzed in different degradation degrees of alpine meadow soils on the QTP. The results showed a close relationship between soil hydrological properties and soil physicochemical properties. Freeze-thaw cycles changed the physicochemical and hydrological properties, that is, frequent freeze-thaw cycles promote to permafrost degradation in terms of soil basis properties of active layer. In addition, vegetation on the ground delayed the degradation of frozen soil. The actual available soil water content (SWC) in the root layer was a key factor in the ecohydrological process. The actual effective SWC in the root layers of different alpine meadows was ranked as follows: non-degraded meadow (NDM) > moderately-degraded meadow (MDM) > seriously degraded meadow (SDM) (1.8-5.0% at NDM and 0.0-4.2% at SDM). In addition, the weak soilpermeability in an SDM intensified the deficiency of the available SWC, thereby increasingthe difficulty of ecological restoration. This study provides a basis for ecological environmental protection in permafrost regions and provides a hydrological process model for cold regions under future climate change scenarios.

Changes in the hydrological regimes of Arctic rivers could affect the thermohaline circulation of the Arctic Ocean. In this study, we analysed spatiotemporal variations in temperature and precipitation in the Ob River Basin regions during 1936-2017 based on data from the Global Precipitation Climatology Center. Changes in discharge and response to climate change were examined based on monthly observed data during the same period. It is indicated the Ob River Basin experienced significant overall rapid warming and wetting (increased precipitation) in the study period, with average rates of 0.20 degrees C (10 year(-1)) and 5.3 mm (10 year(-1)), respectively. The annual spatial variations of temperature and precipitation showed different scales in different regions. The discharge in spring and winter significantly increased at a rate of 384.1 and 173.1 m(3)/s (10 year(-1)), respectively. Hydrograph separation indicated infiltration and supported that deep flow paths increased the contribution of groundwater to base flow. Meanwhile, the variation of the ratio of Q(max)/Q(min) suggested that the basin storage and the mechanism of discharge generation have significantly changed. The hydrological processes were influenced by changes of permafrost in a certain in the Ob River Basin. An increase in the recession coefficient (RC) implies that the permafrost degradation in the basin due to climate warming affected hydrological processes in winter. Permafrost degradation affected the Q(max)/Q(min) more significantly in the warm season than RC due to the enhanced infiltration that converted more surface water into groundwater in the cold season. The impact of precipitation on discharge, including surface flow and base flow, was more significant than temperature at the annual and seasonal scales in the Ob River Basin. The base flow was more obviously influenced by temperature than surface flow. The results of this study are significant for analyses of the basin water budget and freshwater input to the Arctic Ocean.

Climate change is causing rapid changes of Arctic ecosystems. Yet, data needed to unravel complex subsurface processes are very rare. Using geophysical and in situ sensing, this study closes an observational gap associated with thermohydrological dynamics in discontinuous permafrost systems. It highlights the impact of vegetation and snow thickness distribution on subsurface thermohydrological properties and processes. Large snow accumulation near tall shrubs insulates the ground and allows for rapid and downward heat flow. Thinner snow pack above graminoid results in surficial freezing and prevents water from infiltrating into the subsurface. Analyzing short-term disturbances, we found that lateral flow could be a driving factor in talik formation. Interannual measurements show that deep permafrost temperatures increased by about 0.2 degrees C over 2 years. The results, which suggest that snow-vegetation-subsurface processes are tightly coupled, will be useful for improving predictions of Arctic feedback to climate change, including how subsurface thermohydrology influences CO2 and CH4 fluxes.

Snowmelt water is a vital freshwater resource in the Altai Mountains of northwestern China. Yet its seasonal hydrological cycle characteristics could change under a warming climate and more rapid spring snowmelt. Here, we simulated snowmelt runoff dynamics in the Kayiertesi River catchment, from 2000 to 2016, by using an improved hydrological distribution model that relied on high-resolution meteorological data acquired from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (Fnl-NCEP) that were downscaled using the Weather Research Forecasting model. Its predictions were compared to observed runoff data, which confirmed the simulations' reliability. Our results show the model performed well, in general, given its daily validation Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) of 0.62 (from 2013 to 2015) and a monthly NSE score of 0.68 (from 2000 to 2010) for the studied river basin of the Altai Mountains. In this river basin catchment, snowfall accounted for 64.1% of its precipitation and snow evaporation for 49.8% of its total evaporation, while snowmelt runoff constituted 29.3% of the annual runoff volume. Snowmelt's contribution to runoff in the Altai Mountains can extend into non-snow days because of the snowmelt water retained in soils. From 2000 to 2016, the snow-to-rain ratio decreased rapidly, however, the snowmelt contribution remained relatively stable in the study region. Our findings provide a sound basis for making snowmelt runoff predictions, which could be used prevent snowmelt-induced flooding, as well as a generalizable approach applicable to other remote, high-elevation locations where high-density, long-term observational data are currently lacking. How snowmelt contributes to water dynamics and resources in cold regions is garnering greater attention. Our proposed model is thus timely perhaps, enabling more comprehensive assessments of snowmelt contributions to hydrological processes in those alpine regions characterized by seasonal snow cover.

The impact on the hydrologic cycle of permafrost degradation under the influence of climate change has caused an inestimable threat to sustainable regulation of the ecosystem. This study quantified the responses of main hydrological elements, including soil moisture, groundwater, runoff components and discharge to totally degraded permafrost in eastern High Asia by establishing cases with and without thermodynamics using a cold region model combining hydrological processes and thermodynamics. The results showed that the model successfully simulated discharge in cold region basins. Totally degraded permafrost decreased soil moisture in the vadose zone (SMV) and increased the absolute depth to ground water (ADGW). In the daily scale, total permafrost degradation decreased the direct flow in autumn, slightly increased direct flow in spring and decreased interflow in summer. Total permafrost degradation also increased daily bascflow all year round and by >50% in spring, decreased daily discharge during autumn and increased daily discharge during spring. In the annual scale, total permafrost degradation increased direct flow, bascflow, and discharge, and decreased interflow. The magnitudes of these changes were positively related to the ratios of permafrost to the subbasin area. The responses of daily runoff components and discharge to totally degraded permafrost were significantly larger than the annual value. The groundwater level, direct flow and baseflow were far more sensitive to permafrost degradation than SMV, interflow and discharge. The responses of annual individual hydrological elements were more obvious than the annual discharge. These quantified results can be extensively used in lumped hydrology simulations, water resource assessments and eco-system management for partial permafrost degradation. (C) 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.