Mongolia's cryosphere is relatively poorly studied; this review sheds light on the research on paleoglaciations, recent glaciers, and permafrost. Historical works mostly added to reconstructions of paleoglaciations and the development of geochronologies that are increasingly based on numerical dating methods including the use of cosmogenic radionuclides. During the Pleistocene, four glaciation centers existed: Altai, Eastern Sayan, Khangai, and Kenthii mountains. Pleistocene glaciations covered an area of between 20,000 and 30,000 km(2) and occurred partly asynchronously across these mountain systems: the glacier maximum in the Altai, Khangai, and Eastern Sayan occurred during MIS 3, while it occurred during MIS 2 in the Khentii and Gobi Altai. Today, Mongolia's glaciers are restricted to the Altai and generally in recession for the past decades; the total glacial area decreased by 35% from 1990 to 2016, when 627 glaciers covered 334 km(2). In the Upper Khovd River Basin that includes Tavan Bogd, Mongolia's recent glaciation center, the contribution from meltwater to total runoff decreased by > 3% from 2000 to 2016. The Altai glaciers are predicted to undergo sustained mass loss by 2100, with some locations, particularly in the western Altai, losing all their ice. Uncertainties about the occurrence and distribution of permafrost still exist as subtype classifications vary, periglacial conditions might have been interpreted as permafrost, and not all researchers agree on the existence of continuous permafrost within Mongolia. Today, permafrost covers 26% of Mongolia's territory. Undoubtedly, permafrost warming and thawing is widespread, and the ground ice is predicted to disappear in the 21st century. Climate change already left its mark on Mongolia's cryosphere and consequently on many communities. Hence, sustainable approaches are needed in water resources management in the Altai and technical infrastructure maintenance and improvement in permafrost regions.

来源平台：GEOMORPHOLOGY